QUESTIONSand  ANSWERS 

ON 

BUTTERMAKING 


CHAS.  A.  PUBLOW 


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THE   PUBLOW   ACID  TEST 


Questions  and  Answers 
^  on  Buttermaking  ^ 


By 
CHAS.  A.  PUBLOW,  A.B.M.D.C.M. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Industry  in 
Cornell  University 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW    YORK 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

LONDON 

Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Trubner  &  Co.,  Limited 


Copyright,  1909 

Orange  Judd  Company 

New  York 


[BKTEBED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL,  LONDON,  ENGLAND] 


Printed  in  U.  S.  A. 


This  little  book  is  affectionately 
dedicated  to  my  father,  of  whom 
it  can  be  said  that  no  man  was 
more  willing  to  answer  the 
questions  of  his  students  or 
more   anxious   for   their   success. 


S0504 


fMo 


PREFACE 

In  most  of  our  agricultural  schools  and  colleges 
many  short-course  students  now  make  up  a  large 
part  of  the  total  registration,  and  in  dairy  work  it 
is  doubtful  if  any  other  class  of  students  accom- 
plishes so  much  in  the  same  period  of  tuition. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  difficulty  or  drawback  to  the 
average  short-course  man  is  his  lack  of  prelimi- 
nary school  training.  He  can  do  manual  work,  but 
lack  of  experience  in  answering  questions  causes 
his  failure  at  examination  time.  He  knows  the 
work,  but  cannot  express  his  views  in  writing. 

Then  there  are  those  long-experienced,  practical 
buttermakers  who  wish  to  better  their  positions  by 
trying  civil  service  examinations.  They  read  all 
current  literature  and  know  the  answers  in  a  cer- 
tain way,  but  cannot  express  their  thoughts  as  they 
should. 

It  is  for  this  class  of  men,  and  out  of  sympathy 
for  their  needs,  that  the  author  has  seen  fit  to  com- 
pile this  little  series  of  question  compends. 

All  modern  literature  on  buttermaking  has  been 
consulted  freely,  with  the  hope  of  making  the  work 
more  thorough  and  with  the  hope  of  being  of  the 
greatest  service  to  those  of  our  associates  in  dairy 
work. 

CHAS.  A.  PUBLOW. 

August,  1909. 


ait  Colfe 


Questions  and  Answers  on 
Buttermaking 


What  is  the  average  composition  of  milk? 

Water    87.0% 

Fat  4.0% 

Sugar 5.0% 

Casein    2.6% 

Albumin 7% 

Ash    7% 

What  constituents  of  milk  are  most  important  in 
buttermaking  ? 

Milk  fat. 

Water. 

Sugar. 

Why  is  the  milk  fat  most  important? 

Because  it  forms  over  80%  of  the  composition  of 
butter. 

In  what  form  does  fat  in  milk  exist? 

Milk  fat  exists  in  the  form  of  small  globules  not 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  and  held  in  suspension  in 
the  milk  serum. 

What  conditions  affect  the  size  of  fat  globules? 

1.  Breeds  of  cows. 

2.  Individuality  of  cows. 


2  QUESTIONS    AND   ANSWERS 

3.  Period  of  lactation. 

4.  Part  of  milk  tested. 

5.  Xight  milking  and  morning  milking. 

6.  Health  of  cow. 

What  are  properties  of  milk  fat? 

Its  specific  gravity  is  about  .93.  Its  melting  point 
is  between  90°  F.  and  99°  F.  When  heated  it  be- 
comes oily  and  when  cooled  solidifies,  some  parts 
solidifying  sooner  than  others. 

From  what  is  milk  fat  formed? 
Fatty  acids  and  glycerin. 

Of  what  fats  is  milk  fat  composed? 

'Olein   35-0% 

Palmitin    25.7% 

Non-volatile    Myristin 20.2% 

92%         I  Laurin    7.4% 

Caprin   i-9% 

Stearin    1.8% 

^Butyrin   3-85% 

Volatile     ^  Caprion 3-6o% 

8%  [Caprylin 55% 

What  is  the  theory  of  a  film  surrounding  each  fat 
globule? 

Upon  this  subject  there  is  great  difference  of 
opinion.  Dr.  Van  Slyke  of  Geneva  states  that  no 
such  film  exists.  Dr.  Storch  says  that  a  film  does 
exist,  that  he  has  isolated  and  analyzed  it  and  found 
it  contained  94  per  cent  w^ater  and  6  per  cent  pro- 
teid. 


ON    BUTTERMAKING  3 

What  is  a  volatile  fat? 

One  composed  of  a  soluble,  easily  vaporized,  fatty 
acid,  and  glycerin. 

What  is  a  non-volatile  fat? 

One  composed  of  an  insoluble  fatty  acid  and 
glycerin.     It  is  not  easily  vaporized. 

What  is  the  melting  point  of  the  different  fats? 

Olein    41°  F. 

Stearin    150°  F. 

Myristin    129°  F. 

Palmitin    142°  F. 

Of  what  value  are  the  casein  and  albumin  in  butter- 
making? 
Of  no  particular  value,  as  they  are  retained  in 
the  skim  milk. 

Of  what  value  is  milk  sugar  in  buttermaking  ? 

From  milk  sugar  lactic  acid  is  formed  by  the 
action  of  the  bacteria.  This  knowledge  is  made 
use  of  in  making  starters,  in  ripening  cream,  in 
churning  and  in  securing  a  desirable  flavor  and 
body  in  butter. 

What  is  the  color  of  milk  due  to? 
I.     To  lactochrome. 
2.     To  the  milk  fats,  particularly  palmitin. 

How  does  the  color  of  milk  affect  the  natural  color- 
ing of  butter? 

During  those  seasons  of  the  year  in  which  the 
cow  is  fed  grass  or  other  succulent  foods  the  color 


4  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

of  butter  is  highest.     During  the  winter  when  dry 
feed  is  fed  the  milk  fat  has  less  color. 

What  are  the  effects  of  pasteurizing  milk  at  i8o° 
F.  or  over? 

1.  It  destroys  nearly  all  bacterial  life. 

2.  It  diminishes  the  viscosity. 

3.  It  drives  off  gases. 

4.  It  may  impart  a  cooked  taste. 

5.  It  precipitates  some  of  the  albuminoids  and 
ash  constituents. 

6.  It  destroys  the  properties  of  milk  enzymes. 

7.  It  splits  up  the  fat  globules. 

8.  It  caramelizes  some  of  the  sugar. 

What  ferments  are  common  in  milk? 

1.  Organized — bacteria,  yeasts. 

2.  Unorganized — galactase. 

What  is  the  difference  between  an  organized  and  an 
unorganized  ferment? 

An  organized  ferment  is  one  due  to  the  action  of 
bacteria  and  having  the  power  of  reproducing  itself. 

An  unorganized  ferment  or  enzyme  is  formed  by 
some  secreting  gland,  has  limited  action  and  has 
not  the  power  of  reproducing  itself. 

What  are  bacteria? 

Bacteria  are  the  lowest  forms  of  microscopical 
plants. 

What  bacteria  are  desirable  in  buttermaking? 

Those  forms  that  produce  lactic  acid  from  milk 
sugar  and  give  a  desirable  flavor  to  butter. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  5 

What  bacteria  are  undesirable  in  buttermaking? 

I.     Those   that   produce  gas   and   bad   flavors   in 
milk,  cream  and  butter. 
2.*   Those  that  cause  ropy  milk. 

3.  Those  that  cause  sweet  coagulation  of  milk. 

4.  Liquifying  bacteria. 

5.  All  forms  that  are  not  necessary  in  producing 
clean,  wholesome  butter. 

Upon    what    conditions    do    bacteria    depend    for 
growth  ? 

1.  Suitable  food. 

2.  Moisture. 

3.  Suitable  temperature. 

What  are  the  sources  of  bacteria  in  milk,  cream, 
and  butter? 

1.  From  stable  air,  especially  when  dust,  cob- 
webs and  manure  abound. 

2.  From  unclean  hands  that  milk  the  cows. 

3.  From  unclean  utensils. 

4.  From  contaminated  water. 

5.  From  the  air  of  any  place  whose  surround- 
ings are  unclean. 

6.  From  impure  starters. 

7.  From  any  unclean  thing  with  which  milk, 
cream,  or  butter  comes  in  contact. 

8.  By  keeping  these  products  at  too  high  tem- 

What  are  bacterial  spores? 

They  are  the  generative  cells  by  which  bacteria 
divide  and  reproduce.  All  forms  of  bacteria  do  not 
form  spores. 


6  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

How  can  bacteria  be  killed? 

Most  bacteria  can  be  killed  by  heating  to  a  tem- 
perature of  212°  F.  Many  forms  are  killed  by  lower 
temperature,  but  spores  are  not  destroyed  by  boil- 
ing. 

How  can  spores  be  killed? 

By  fractional  sterilization,  i.  e.,  by  first  heating 
to  boiling  point,  212°  F.,  then  cooling  to  90°  F., 
allowing  remaining  spores  to  develop  at  this  latter 
temperature  into  bacteria  and  heating  again  to 
212°  F.  to  kill  these.  This  procedure  may  be  re- 
peated several  times. 

How  can  milk  or  cream  be  tested  on  the  receiving 
platform? 

1.  For  acidity  by  the  use  of  an  acidimeter. 

2.  For  odors  by  sense  of  smell. 

3.  For  flavors  by  sense  of  taste. 

4.  For  insoluble  dirt  by  eyesight  and  by  allow- 
ing samples  to  stand  a  few  minutes  in  small  glass 
jars  so  that  the  dirt  will  settle  to  the  bottom. 

5.  In  cold  weather  flavors  and  odors  can  be  de- 
tected more  readily  if  milk  and  cream  are  warmed 
up  by  steam. 

6.  By  the  use  of  fermentation  or  Wisconsin 
curd  test. 

7.  ^lilk  can  be  tested  for  adulteration  by  the 
use  of  a  lactometer. 

8.  Samples  can  be  taken  for  composite  bottles  or 
for  daily  testing  for  fat. 

What  is  the  fermentation  test? 

Commonly  called  "  Wisconsin  curd  test."     Sam- 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  7 

pies  of  suspected  milk  from  each  patron  are  placed 
in  small  glass  jars  holding  about  half  a  pint.  The 
milk  is  heated  to  90°  F.  and  retained  at  this  tem- 
perature to  make  conditions  favorable  for  the 
growth  of  any  abnormal  bacteria  or  ferments  that 
may  be  present.  Cheesemakers  add  a  small  amount 
of  rennet  to  the  samples  of  milk  so  that  a  curd  is 
formed  that  may  be  studied  for  defects:  The 
samples  are  examined  frequently  during  the  day, 
and  tested  for  odors  or  other  defects  that  may  have 
developed. 

What  are  the  uses  of  the  fermentation  test? 

1.  To  assist  in  locating  sources  of  bad  flavors 
in  milk,  cream,  and  butter. 

2.  To  study  the  nature  of  the  milk  furnished  by 
each  patron. 

3.  To  study  the  action  of  suspected  starters  on 
samples  of  milk. 

How  should  milk  and  cream  be  sampled  for  fat 
testing  ? 

Samples  of  milk  can  be  accurately  measured  by 
the  use  of  a  17.6  c.  c.  pipette.  They  can  also  be 
weighed,  using  18  grams  for  each  test. 

All  samples  of  cream  should  be  accurately 
weighed  on  reliable  scales,  using  4  grams  for  each 
sample.  Accurate  work  cannot  be  done  by  using 
a  pipette  for  measuring,  as  cream  of  different  per- 
centages of  fat  varies  considerably  in  volume. 

When  milk  and  cream  are  paid  for  on  the  fat 
basis,  composite  samples  of  each  patron's  milk  or 
cream  are  kept  and  tested  at  least  twice  each 
month 


8  QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS 

What  is  meant  by  "overrun"  in  buttermaking? 

The  overrun  is  the  difference  between  the  amount 
of  pure  milk  fat  and  the  amount  of  butter  manu- 
factured from  that  given  amount  of  fat. 

How  is  the  percentage  overrun  determined? 

The  difference  between  the  amount  of  fat  and 
the  amount  of  butter  is  divided  by  the  amount  of 
fat  and  multiplied  by  lOO. 

Example :  700  pounds  milk  testing  6  per  cent= 
42  pounds  fat.  Yield  of  butter  made  from  42  pounds 
fat,  is  50  pounds;  difference  is  8  pounds  (overrun) 
.*.  percentage  overrun  is 

^2^  X  100=19%. 

Upon  what  does  the  amount  of  overrun  depend? 

1.  Thoroughness  of  skimming. 

2.  Completeness  of  churning. 

3.  General  losses  in  the  creamery. 

4.  Composition  of  the  butter  manufactured. 

5.  Accuracy  in  sampling  the  cream  for  testing. 

6.  Accuracy  in  reading  the  fat  in  the  graduated 
test  bottles. 

What  is  "churn-yield"? 

Churn-yield  is  the  amount  of  butter  in  relation  to 
the  amount  of  fat  in  the  milk.     Example: 
/Pounds  of  butter,  s^  lOO=chum.yield. 

^Pounds  of  milk    /  -^ 

If  cream  is  used  instead  of  milk,  the  word  cream 
is  used  in  place  of  milk  in  this  formula. 

What  is  meant  by  "cream-raising  coefBcient"? 

It  is  the  percentage  of  fat  removed  from  the  milk 
during  the  process  of  separation.     Example: 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  9 

Suppose  100  pounds  of  milk  containing  4  per 
cent  fat  is  skimmed  and  it  yields  85  pounds  skim 
milk,  testing  .2  per  cent  fat  and  15  pounds  cream. 

Total  fat  in  whole  milk^iooX-04=4  pounds. 

Total  fat  in  skim  milk=85X-002=.i7  pound. 

Total  fat  in  cream=4 — .17=3.83  pounds. 

3.83  X  100  .   Qg  yg 

.-.  the  cream-raising  coefficient  is  95.75  per  cent. 

Should  a  patron  who  furnishes  cream  be  paid  more 
per  pound  of  fat  than  the  patron  who  delivers 
whole  milk? 
Theoretically,   he    should,    because    there    is    no 
separator  loss  to  the  creamery  when  cream  is  fur- 
nished.    However,  it  is  doubtful  if  such  a  plan  can 
be   fairly   conducted   in   many  places,   because   the 
quality  of  the  cream  or  fat  determines   largely  its 
market  value.     Usually  butter  made  by  whole  milk 
creameries  is  superior  to  that  made  in  cream-gath- 
ering creameries,  so,  taken  all  in  all,  it  is  doubtful 
if  any  difference  should  be  made  in  the  price  of  fat. 

Why  is  milk  heated  or  tempered  before  separating? 

1.  Because  all  separators  skim  closer  and  do  not 
clog  so  easily. 

2.  Viscosity  of  milk  is  decreased. 

3.  Fluidity  of  milk  is  increased. 

4.  Increases  the  ease  of  fat  separation. 

What  is  the  best  temperature  for  separating  milk 
by  centrifugal  force? 

About  90°  F. 


lO  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

What  are  the  advantages  of  high  heating  before 
separation? 

1.  Undesirable  taints  are  largely  eliminated. 

2.  Bacteria  are  killed  in  the  skim  milk  and 
cream. 

3.  Less  heating  and  cooling  apparatus  is  neces- 
sary. 

4.  Closer  skimming. 

5.  Less  labor  and  smaller  cost  of  heating. 

How  should  milk  be  heated  before  separation? 

1.  By  some  special  heater  that  heats  the  milk 
indirectly  with  steam  or  hot  water.  This  is  the 
best  method. 

2.  By  the  use  of  a  double-jacketed  vat  in  which 
hot  water  can  be  used.  This  is  a  common  method, 
but  it  has  two  serious  objections: 

(i)  Milk  is  kept  warm  too  long  before  sep- 
aration, favoring  the  rapid  growth  of  bacteria. 

(2)  If  for  any  reason  the  separator  or  ma- 
chinery should  break  down,  the  warm  milk  will 
soon  sour,  especially  during  warm  .weather. 

Why  is   it   not   advisable  to  heat  milk   by   direct 
steam? 

1.  Steam  from  impure  water  may  introduce  bad 
flavors  into  the  milk. 

2.  It  is  too  sudden. 

3.  The  butter  may  have  a  burnt  or  oily  flavor. 

Why  is  fat  separated  from  milk  for  churning? 

1.  To  reduce  the  bulk. 

2.  To  save  fat.  Fat  is  more  easily  removed  by 
separation  than  by  churning. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING 


II 


3.     For  commercial  purposes. 
4     To  facilitate  cream  ripening. 
5.     To  secure  sweet  skim  milk. 
What  are  the  different  methods  of  cream  separa- 
tion? 

rhand  separators. 

1.  Centrifugal  <j  ^^^^^  separators. 

fshallow-pan  method. 

2.  Gravity         ^deep-setting  method. 

Lwater-dilution  method. 

What  are  the  advantages  of  centrifugal  separation 
over  gravity  separation? 

1.  More  rapid. 

2.  More  thorough. 

3.  Better  cream,  that  can  be  of  any  desired  per- 
centage of  fat. 

4.  Fresher  skim  milk. 

5.  Fermentations  can  more  easily  be  controlled. 

6.  Centrifugal  force  removes  insoluble  dirt  from 

milk. 

7.  Less  danger  of  milk  and  cream  absorbmg  bad 

odors. 

8.  Insures  a  more  even  quality  of  butter. 

9.  Less  labor  involved. 

What  are  the  advantages  of  the  shallow-pan  sys- 
tem? 

1.  Cheapness. 

2.  Simplicity. 

What  are  its  disadvantages? 

I.     Heavy  loss  of  fat.     This  method  saves  only 
about  80  per  cent  of  the  fat. 


12  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

2.  Requires  much  space. 

3.  Requires  much  labor. 

4.  Milk  may  become  seriously  contaminated  by 
long  exposure  in  unclean  places. 

5.  Cannot  fully  control  the  ripening  of  milk. 

6.  The  skim  milk  is  not  in  the  best  condition  for 
feeding  to  calves. 

What  are  the  advantages  of  the  deep-setting  sys- 
tem? 

1.  Furnishes  good  cream. 

2.  Easy  to  operate. 

3.  Not  expensive. 

4.  Very  good  system  if  one  has  ice  or  cold  water. 

What  are  the  disadvantages? 

1.  Considerable   loss  of  fat.     Seldom   can   more 
'than   93    per   cent   of   the    fat   be   secured   by   this 

method. 

2.  Skim  milk  is  not  fresh,  although  sweet. 

What  are  the  disadvantages  of  the  dilution  method? 

1.  Greater  bulk. 

2.  Skim  milk  less  valuable. 

3.  Danger    of    undesirable    bacteria    in    impure 
water. 

4.  Cream   is   not  normal   in   solids-not-fat   com- 
position. 

5.  Loss  of  fat  is  as  great  as  in  deep-setting  sys- 
tem. 

What  four  principles  have  been  used  by  separator 
manufacturers? 
I.     Revolving  bucket  centrifuge. 


ON    BUTTERMAKING  I3 

2.  Intermittent  hollow  bowl. 

3.  Continuous  hollow  bowl. 

4.  Continuous      separator,      with      contrivances 
within  the  bowl. 

What  is  the  principal  part  in  separator  construc- 
tion? 

A  hollow  bowl  with  or  without  inner  devices  and 
rotating  at  high  speed  in  a  vertical  position. 

Into  what  three  layers  does  milk  divide  in  a  revolv- 
ing separator  bowl? 

1.  Separator  slime  on  the  outside. 

2.  Skim  milk  next  the  slime. 

3.  Cream  nearest  the  center  of  the  bowl.     The 
richest  cream  is  in  the  very  center  of  the  bowl. 

What  is  the  composition  of  separator  slime? 

It  is  made  up  of  casein,  insoluble  dirt,  bacteria, 
fat,  water,  ash,  albumin,  and  foreign  bodies. 
Fleischmann  gives  the  following: 

Water    67.3% 

Fat 1.1% 

Caseous    matter.     25.9% 

Other  substances       2.1% 

Ash    3.6% 

100.0% 

What  is  the  cream  screw? 

It  is  the  outlet  by  which  the  cream  leaves  the 
separator  bowl. 


14  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

How  does  altering  the  position  of  the  cream  screw 
affect  the  composition  of  the  cream? 

Turning  it  in  toward  the  center  of  the  bowl  in- 
creases the  richness  of  the  cream. 

Turning  it  away  from  the  center  causes  the  cream 
to  be  thinner. 

What  is  the  relation  between  the  skim-milk  outlet 
and  the  running  of  the  separator? 

The  nearer  the  skim-milk  outlet  can  be  brought 
to  the  center  of  the  bowl,  the  easier  will  the  machine 
run.  Usually  the  skim-milk  outlet  is  brought  in 
toward  the  center  of  the  bowl  at  one  end  through 
tubes  extending  from  the  circumference  of  the 
bowl. 

What  conditions  affect  the  amount  and  richness  of 
cream  obtained? 

1.  Richness  of  the  milk. 

2.  Speed  of  the  bowl. 

3.  Rate  of  inflow  of  milk. 

4.  Position  of  the  creant  screw  and  skim-milk 
outlet. 

5.  Temperature  of  the  milk. 

6.  Acidity  of  the  milk. 

What  are  the  most  common  ways  of  regulating  the 
richness  of  cream? 

1.  By  cream  screw. 

2.  By  skim-milk  outlet. 

3.  By  inflow  of  milk. 

What  are  the  causes  of  cream  being  too  thick? 
I.     Cream  screw  too  near  center  of  the  bowl. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  IS 

2.  Cream  outlet  may  be  clog-ged. 

3.  Milk  inflow  may  be  insufficient. 

4.  Speed  of  machine  may  be  too  high. 

5.  Milk  may  be  very  rich. 

6.  Milk  may  be  too  cold. 

What  are  the  causes  of  cream  being  too  thin? 

1.  Cream  screw  too  far  from  center  of  bowl. 

2.  Skim-milk  outlet  may  be  clogged. 

3.  Milk  inflow  may  be  too  fast. 

4.  Speed  of  machine  may  be  too  low. 

5.  Milk  may  be  very  poor  in  fat. 

What  is  the  running  speed  of  the  common  power 
separators  ? 
De  Laval,  5,600  revolutions  per  minute. 
United  States,  8,500-9,000  revolutions  per  minute. 
Simplex,  6,500  revolutions  per  minute. 
Tubular,  14,000-15,000  revolutions  per  minute. 
Sharpies,  14,000-15,000  revolutions  per  minute. 

How  is  the  speed  of  separators  determined? 

All  modern  machines  have  a  speed  indicator  con- 
sisting of  a  small  wheel,  which  can  be  pushed 
against  the  wormed  part  of  the  separator's  revolv- 
ing spindle.  Most  indicators  make  only  one  revolu- 
tion while  the  bowl  turns  100  times.  In  testing  the 
speed  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  watch  or  clock  with 
second  hands  so  that  the  number  of  revolutions  of 
the  small  wheel  in  a  given  number  of  seconds  can 
be  determined. 

Example :  The  speed  indicator  is  pushed  against 
the  revolving  spindle  for  10  seconds,.  During  that 
time  the  indicator  turns  12  times.     Every  turn  of 


1 6  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

the  indicator  means  lOO  turns  of  the  separator  bowl 
and  spindle.  Therefore,  in  lo  seconds  the  bowl  re- 
volves lOO  X  12,  or  1,200  times.  Ten  seconds  is 
one-sixth  of  a  minute.  Therefore,  in  a  minute  the 
bowl  revolves  1,200X6  times,  7,200  times. 

The  speed  of  all  modern  separators  can  be  easily- 
figured  in  this  way.  Each  turn  of  the  indicator 
on  the 

De  Laval  means  100  turns  of  the  bowl. 

United  States  means  100  turns  of  the  bowl. 

Simplex  means    50  turns  of  the  bowl. 

Tubular  means  250  turns  of  the  bowl. 

Sharpies  means  250  turns  of  the  bowl. 

Upon  what  does  the  centrifugal  force  of  a  revolving 
separator  bowl  depend? 

1.  It  varies  in  direct  proportion  to  the  diameter 
of  the  bowl,  i.  e.,  the  greater  the  diameter  the  less 
speed  is  required  in  order  to  get  a  certain  force. 

2.  It  varies  in  quadratic  proportion  to  the  speed 
of  the  machine,  i.  e.,  if  the  speed  is  doubled  the 
centrifugal  force  is  increased  four  times. 

What  are  the  disadvantages  of  a  large  bowl? 

1.  It  more  easily  gets  out  of  balance. 

2.  It  is  harder  to  keep  on  bearings. 

3.  It  is  heavy  and  hard  to  handle. 

How    should    a    separator    bowl    be    flushed    after 
running? 

1.  With  skim  milk. 

2.  With  warm  water  at  about  the  same  tem- 
perature as  the  milk. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  VJ 

How  thick  should  farm  separated  cream  be? 

The  thicker  the  better.  The  farmer  then  has 
more  skim  milk  for  feeding  purposes  and  has  less 
cream  to  handle.  Rich  cream  will  take  longer  in 
souring.  Cream  testing  40  per  cent  fat  makes  a 
desirable  cream  for  farm-separator  and  butter  work. 

What  are  the  advantages  of  owning  a  farm  sepa- 
rator and  making  butter  on  the  farm,  rather 
than  send  the  milk  to  a  creamery? 

1.  The  milk  can  be  skimmed  as  soon  as  milked, 
with  small  loss  of  fat,  giving  perfectly  fresh  skim 
milk  for  feeding  purposes. 

2.  No  expense  for  delivering  milk  to  the  cream- 
ery and  drawing  skim  milk  home. 

3.  No  danger  of  transmitting  disease  from  other 
herds  through  skim  milk. 

4.  The  cream  can  be  easily  controlled  and 
ripened. 

5.  A  better  quality  of  butter  can  be  made,  all 
other  things  being  equal. 

6.  The  farmer  Is  more  independent. 

What  are  the  disadvantages  of  this  method? 

1.  Cost  of  separator  and  buttermaking  equip- 
ment. 

2.  Considerable  labor  Involved. 

3.  If  the  cream  Is  not  churned  every  day  or  two 
the  flavor  of  the  butter  suffers. 

4.  Unless  the  butter  Is  well  made  and  a  special 
trade  is  established,  it  will  not  sell  for  as  much 
money  as  does  creamery  butter. 


l8  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

5.  A  suitable  sanitary  place  must  be  provided 
for  ripening  cream  and  for  cooling  butter. 

6.  Scarcity  of  farm  help. 

What  precautions  would  you  observe  in  operating 
a  separator? 

1.  Follow  the  directions  of  the  manufacturer. 

2.  Keep  the  machine  level  and  on  a  solid  founda- 
tion. 

3.  Keep  all  parts  of  the  machine  absolutely 
clean. 

4.  Keep  all  moving  parts  well  oiled  with  the 
recommended  oil. 

5.  Start  the  machine  slowly. 

6.  Fill  the  bowl  with  warm  water  before  start- 
ing. 

7.  Keep  the  speed  even  and  the  milk  feed  supply 
steady. 

8.  When  through  separating  flush  the  bowl  with 
skim  milk  and  warm  water. 

9.  Allow  the  revolving  bowl  to  stop  slowly. 

10.  Keep  the  machine  and  its  parts  in  good 
repair. 

11.  Test  the  skim  milk  frequently. 

What  is  pasteurization? 

Pasteurization  consists  in  heating  milk  to  at  least 
140°  F.  for  at  least  ten  minutes,  for  the  purpose  of 
destroying  bacterial  life.  The  heating  is  followed 
by  rapid  cooling  to  check  spore  formation.  The 
word  is  derived  from  Pasteur,  a  French  scientist. 

What  methods  of  pasteurization  are  used? 

I.  Continuous;  that  is,  heating  continuously  for 
considerable  time. 


ON    BUTTERMAKING  I9 

2.  Intermittent;  that  is,  heating  and  cooling  milk 
alternately  several  times  with  the  idea  of  allow- 
ing spore  development  between  heatings.  After  the 
third  heating  to  a  high  temperature,  practically  all 
bacteria  and   spores   are   destroyed. 

What  is  sterilization? 

This  term  is  often  wTongly  used  in  place  of  pas- 
teurization. To  sterilize  milk  it  must  be  heated  to 
Nvery  high  temperature  under  pressure.  Milk  is  not 
sterile  until  every  bacterium  and  spore  is  destroyed. 

What  are  the  advantages  of  pasteurization  in  butter- 
making? 

1.  Most  bacteria  can  be  destroyed  in  milk  and 
cream. 

2.  Commercial  starters  can  be  prepared  and 
carried  on  for  indefinite  periods. 

3.  Pasteurization  of  skim  milk  prevents  trans- 
mission of  tuberculosis  and  other  such  diseases 
through  its  medium. 

4.  Many  volatile  and  food  flavors  can  be  re- 
moved from  milk  and  cream. 

5.  Cream  ripening  can  be  more  successfully  con- 
trolled. 

6.  A  more  uniform  quality  of  butter  can  be 
made. 

7.  Butter  has  better  keeping  quality. 

8.  Enables  separators  to  skim  closer. 

What   are   the   disadvantages    of   pasteurization   in 
buttermaking? 
I.     Cost  of  machinery,  fuel  and  labor. 


20  QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS 

2.  Requires  ice  or  cold  water  for  cooling  pur- 
poses. 

3.  Butter  may  have  an  oily  texture  if  high  tem- 
perature is  improperly  used. 

What  are  the  names  of  some  of  the  best  pasteuriz- 
ing machines? 

1.  Simplex. 

2.  Jensen. 

3.  Miller. 

4.  Reid. 

5.  Farrington. 

What  are  the  important  features  in  a  pasteurizing 
machine? 

1.  Durability. 

2.  Capacity. 

3.  Cost. 

4.  Efficiency. 

Upon    what    does    the    efficiency    of    the    machine 
depend? 

1.  Kind  of  material  from  which  the  heating  sur- 
face is  manufactured. 

2.  Degree  of  adhesiveness  of  milk  or  cream  on 
the  heating  surface. 

3.  Thickness   of   layer   of   condensed    steam   on 
steam  side  of  heating  surface. 

4.  Difference    in    temperature   on    each    side    of 
heating  surface. 

5.  Proper  utilization  of  steam  turned   into  the 
pasteurizer. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  21 

What  is  the  average  cost  of  pasteurizing  in  butter- 
making? 
This  varies  in  many  localities  and  under  many- 
conditions,  but  the  average  cost  can  be  fairly  esti- 
mated as  being  about  ^4o  of  ^  cent  on  every  pound 
of  butter  manufactured. 

What  is  meant  by  cream  ripening? 

Ripening  is  a  process  by  which  cream  is  prepared 
for  churning.  It  consists  in  controlling  the  souring 
by  controlling  temperatures  and  the  growth  of  bac- 
teria both  in  the  cream  and  in  starters  used. 

Why  do  we  ripen  cream? 

1.  To  control  the  growth  of  lactic  acid  bacteria. 

2.  To  produce  a  desired  amount  of  lactic  acid  in 
the  cream. 

3.  To  lessen  the  viscosity  of  cream. 

4.  To  increase  the  churnability  of  cream. 

5.  To  prevent  losses  in  churning. 

6.  To  produce  flavor  and  aroma  in  the  butter. 

7.  To  increase  the  keeping  quality  of  the  butter. 

What  changes  take  place  in  cream  during  the  ripen- 
ing process? 

1.  Great  increase  in  the  number  of  bacteria. 

2.  Increased  amount  of  lactic  acid  is  formed. 

3.  Reduction  in  the  amount  of  milk  sugar  due  to 
the  formation  of  acid. 

4.  Formation  of  various  compounds  in  small 
quantities  due  chiefly  to  the  action  of  bacteria  and 
bacterial  products. 

5.  Thickening  due  to  coagulation  of  casein. 

6.  The  cream  surface  becomes  glossy. 


22  QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS 

7.  Viscosity  is  lessened. 

8.  Cream  develops  a  characteristic  aroma  and 
taste. 

How  is  cream  ripened? 

1.  Naturally,  i.  e.,  by  allowing  the  cream  to 
stand  at  a  favorable  temperature  until  sour  enough 
for  churning. 

2.  Artificially,  i.  e.,  by  the  use  of  starters.  These 
may  be  buttermilk,  sour  skim  milk  or  commercial 
starters.     Usually  the  cream  is  first  pasteurized. 

What  are  the  disadvantages  of  natural  ripening? 

1.  The  growth  of  undesirable  bacteria  cannot  be 
controlled. 

2.  Great  difficulty  in  making  a  uniform  quality 
of  butter. 

3.  Takes  too  much  time  if  low  temperature  is 
used. 

4.  Quality  of  cream  and  butter  is  usually  de- 
fective in  flavor. 

What  are  the  advantages  of  ripening  cream  with  a 
commercial  starter? 

1.  The  growth  of  lactic  acid  bacteria  and  the 
formation  of  lactic  acid  can  be  controlled. 

2.  The  growth  of  undesirable  bacteria  can  be 
almost  entirely  prevented. 

3.  Less  difficulty  in  making  a  uniform  quality 
of  butter. 

4.  Flavor  of  butter  can  be  greatly  improved. 

5.  Butter  has  better  keeping  quality. 

6.  Advantages  of  pasteurization  can  be  gained. 

7.  Time  is  saved. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  2^ 

How  is  a  commercial  starter  prepared  for  use? 

A  small  bottle  containing  a  culture  of  lactic  acid 
producing  bacteria  is  procured  from  some^  dairy 
bacteriology  laboratory,  or  from  some  reliable  dairy 
supply  house.  Directions  are  usually  sent  out  with 
these,  but  the  following  method  is  the  one  usually 
followed : 

Place  I  quart  of  clean,  szveet  milk  in  a  sterile  glass 
jar.  Heat  the  milk  gradually  in  water  until  a  tem- 
perature of  200°  F.  is  reached.  Hold  at  this  tem- 
perature for  at  least  one  hour.  Then  allow  the 
milk  to  cool  to  90°  F.,  being  careful  not  to  place  the 
glass  suddenly  in  cold  water. 

As  soon  as  90°  F.  is  reached  the  content  of  the 
small  bottle  is  carefully  added  to  the  milk  and 
mixed  through  it.  The  mixture  is  now  allowed  to 
cool  gradually  to  70°  F.  and  then  retained  at  this 
temperature  for  24  hours,  when  it  should  be  sour. 
This  is  called  a  "  mother-starter,"  or  "  starter-line," 
and  is  not  to  be  used  in  ripening  the  cream,  but  in 
preparing  starter  for  the  following  day. 

To  do  this,  take  100  pounds  of  clean,  sweet  skim 
milk  in  a  previously  sterilized  can  and  heat  to  at 
least  200°  F.  for  at  least  one  hour.  Then  cool 
rapidly  to  70°  F.  and  add  the  contents  of  the  quart 
jar  prepared  the  day  previous,  mixing  it  thoroughly 
through  the  milk  with  a  sterilized  dipper.  Hold  at 
70°  F.  for  18  to  24  hours,  when  it  should  be  sour, 
slightly  coagulated  and  clean  in  flavor.  A  small 
amount  of  this  is  saved  out  to  inoculate  the  starter 
for  the  following  day,  and  the  process  can  be  re- 
peated and  carried  on  in  the  same  manner  from  day 
to  day. 


9KSJr  UBRARY 

C  State^olleae      questions  and  answers 


What  precautions  should  be  observed  in  preparing 
and  using  a  commercial  starter? 

1.  Absolute  cleanliness  in  all  things  that  come 
in  contact  with  the  milk. 

2.  Use  sanitary  utensils. 

3.  Use  correct  thermometers. 

4.  Be  exact  on  temperature. 

5.  Use  the  best  milk  obtainable  for  making  the 
starters. 

6.  Add  starter  to  cream  as  early  as  possible. 

7.  Do  not  use  excessive  amount  of  starter. 

How  much  commercial  starter  should  be  used  in 
cream  ripening? 
This  will  vary  according  to: 

1.  Temperature  of  cream. 

2.  Richness  of  cream. 

3.  Acidity  of  the  starter. 

4.  Time  required  for  ripening. 

5.  Purity  of  cream. 

6.  Kind  of  butter  desired. 

Good  results  can  sometimes  be  obtained  by  using 
as  much  as  50  per  cent  starter,  but  the  usual  amount 
is  from  10  per  cent  to  20  per  cent  of  the  cream  to  be 
ripened.  One  point  that  should  be  remembered  is 
that  the  greater  the  amount  of  buttermilk,  the 
greater  is  the  loss  of  fat  in  churning. 

How  much  acidity  should  be  developed  in  a  com- 
mercial starter? 
About  .7  per  cent. 

Is  a  commercial  starter  a  pure  culture? 

It  may  be  or  it  may  not.     Usually  it  is  not. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  ^S 

What    are    the    qualities    of   an    ideal    commercial 
starter? 

1.  It  should  have  a  clean,  sour  taste  and  a  mild, 
characteristic  aroma. 

2.  It  should  be  nicely  curdled,  but  not  hard  or 

lumpy. 

3.  It  should  have  about  .7  per  cent  acidity. 

4.  A  brownish  color  indicates  thorough  pasteur- 
ization. 

5.  It  should  be  glossy  and  have  a  liver-like  con- 
sistency. 

What  are  the  common  defects  in  starters? 

1.  They  may  contain  large  numbers  of  undesir- 
able bacteria. 

2.  They  may  be  "  gassy." 

3.  They  may  have  a  bitter  taste  due  to  over- 
development of  acid  or  from  being  kept  at  too  high 
temperature. 

4.  They  may  curdle  while  heating,  due  to  ab- 
normal or  over-ripe  milk. 

5.  They  may  be  "  slimy  "  or  "ropy,"  due  to  im- 
perfect pasteurization. 

6.  They  may  become  "  wheyed-ofif,"  caused  by 
over-development  of  acid  or  too  high  temperature. 

What  are  the,  effects  of  a  bad  starter  upon  the  qual- 
ity of  the  butter? 

1.  The  flavor  of  the  starter  will  be  imparted  to 
the  butter  and  buttermilk. 

2.  Mechanical  losses  are  greater. 

3.  Keeping  quality  of  the  butter  is  greatly  im- 
paired. 


^6  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

What  are  some  of  the  reliable  commercial  cultures 
on  the  market? 

Hansen's,  Little  Falls,  N.  Y. 

0.  Douglas's,  Boston,  Mass. 

S.  C.  Keith's,  Charleston,  Mass. 

Ericsson's,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Parke,  Davis  &  Co/s,  Detroit,  Mich. 

At  what  temperature  should  cream  be  ripened? 

Most  buttermakers  are  now  agreed  that  a  tem- 
perature between  60°  F.  and  70°  F.  gives  the  best 
results.  The  cream  should  be  cooled  to  churning 
temperature  a  few  hours  before  churning. 

Why  should  cream  be  stirred  during  the  ripening 
process? 

1.  To  insure  uniform  development  of  lactic  acid. 

2.  To  keep  the  fat  and  acid  thoroughly  mixed. 

3.  To  keep  the  temperature  even. 

4.  To  prevent  the  cream  surface  drying. 

5.  To  prevent  loss  of  fat. 

6.  To  prevent  white  specks  of  casein  in  the 
butter. 

What  difference  should  be  made  in  ripening  when 
cream  is  churned  every  other  day? 

The  method  most  successfully  used  is  as  follows: 
Begin  ripening  at  once  with  the  first  lot  of  cream 
skimmed  and  let  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  get  a  start. 
In  a  few  hours  cool  to  at  least  50°  F.  and  hold  till 
the  following  day,  when  the  freshly  skimmed  cream 
can  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  it.  The  cream  from 
the  first  day  thus  acts  as  a  starter  for  the  cream 
of  the  second  day.      The   lactic   acid  inhibits  the 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  27 

growth  of  undesirable  bacteria  so  that  better  results 
are  accomplished.  A  great  mistake  is  too  often 
made  by  holding  cream  too  long.  The  longer  it 
is  held  after  being  ready  for  churning,  the  more 
the  flavor  and  quality  of  the  butter  suffers. 

What  conditions  determine  whether  cream  of  dif- 
ferent qualities  should  be  mixed? 

1.  Quality  of  the  cream. 

2.  The  kind  of  market  for  the  butter. 

3.  The  amount  of  poor  cream  compared  with  the 
quantity  of  good  cream. 

4.  General  creamery  conditions,  such  as  facilities 
for  pasteurizing,  making  starters,  and  for  cream 
ripening. 

How  much  acid  should  be  developed  in  cream  for 
churning  ? 

This  varies  with  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  cream 
and  the  kind  of  butter  desired.     Usually 
20%  cream  should  have  about  .7% 
30%  cream  should  have  about  .6% 
40%  cream  should  have  about  .5% 
50%  cream  should  have  about  .4% 
The  richer  the  cream,  the  less  sugar  it  contains 
for  acid  formation. 

How  is  the  acid  in  milk,  cream,  starters,  or  butter- 
milk measured? 
By  an  acidimeter. 

Describe  an  acidimeter  and  the  method  of  testing. 

There  are  several  tests  for   measuring  acid  and 
sold  on  the  market  under  different  names,  such  as 


28  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

Publow's,  Mann's,  Farrington's,  and  Marshall's, 
but  the  principle  is  the  same  in  all  of  them.  An 
alkaline  solution  of  known  strength  and  an  indicator 
called  phenol-phthalein  are  the  reagents  used.  The 
purpose  of  the  indicator  is  to  indicate  the  reaction 
of  the  milk  or  cream;  i.  e.,  it  shows  whether  the 
milk  or  cream  is  acid,  alkaline,  or  neutral.  The  in- 
dicator has  no  color  efifect  in  an  acid  solution,  but  it 
turns  an  alkaline  substance  red.  When  the  neutral 
point  is  reached,  the  faintly  pink  color  is  barely 
distinguishable. 

To  make  the  test : 

A  known  quantity  of  the  milk  or  cream  to  be 
tested  is  placed  in  a  white  cup.  To  it  a  few  drops 
of  indicator  are  added.  An  alkaline  solution  of 
known  strength  is  then  allowed  to  run  in  drop  by 
drop  from  a  graduated  burette  until  the  milk  or 
cream  assumes  a  faintly  pink  color,  which  signifies 
that  all  the  acid  in  the  milk  or  cream  has  been 
neutralized  by  the  alkali  used.  The  amount  of 
alkali  used  can  be  read  on  the  burette,  and  as  its 
strength  is  known  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  figure  the 
amount  of  acid  in  the  milk  or  cream.  One  c.  c.  of 
Yio  normal  alkali  neutralizes  .009  grams  lactic  acid. 

In  the  test  used  at  Cornell  university  the  alkali 
used  is  a  %o  normal  solution  of  caustic  soda.  This 
makes  a  very  convenient  strength,  because  when  g 
grams  of  milk  or  cream  are  taken,  .1  c.  c.  of  it 
neutralizes  or  represents  .01  per  cent  of  lactic  acid. 
Thus,  if  in  testing  the  cream  4  c.  c.  of  the  alkali 
was  used,  the  cream  contained  .40  per  cent  of  acid. 

In  Farrington's  test  the  alkali  is  made  %o  normal 
by  adding  5  tablets  in  97  c.  c.  water.     Then,  when 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  29 

17.6  c.  c.  of  cream  is  taken,  i  c.  c.  of  the  alkali 
represents  .01  per  cent  acid. 

In  Mann's  test  a  %o  normal  alkali  is  used  and 
50  c.  c.  of  cream  are  tested.  The  number  c.  c.  of 
alkali  necessary  to  neutralize  the  acid  measures  in 
degrees  the  amount  of  acid. 

I  c.  c.  of   •—•  alkali^i  degree  Mann's  test. 

To  get  the  per  cent  acid  multiply  the  number 
c.  c.  alkali  used  by  .009,  divide  by  50  and  multiply 
by  100. 

What  is  the  object  in  churning? 

It  is  the  agitation  or  concussion  of  the  cream  to 
a  degree  sufficient  to  separate  the  fat-globules  from 
the  milk  and  cause  them  to  unite  into  masses  of 
butter  large  enough  to  be  easily  separated  from  the 
buttermilk. 

What  conditions  afifect  the  churnability  of  cream? 

1.  Temperature  of  the  cream. 

2.  Acidity  of  the  cream. 

3.  Richness  of  the  cream. 

4.  Size  of  the  fat-globules. 

5.  Nature  of  the  agitation. 

What  is  the  effect  of  temperature  on  the  churn- 
ability  of  cream? 

1.  The  higher  the  temperature,  the  sooner  the 
churning  process   will  be  completed. 

2.  High  temperature  causes  the  butter  to  come 
in  soft  lumps  instead  of  in  a  firm  granular  form. 

3.  High  temperature  causes  too  much  butter- 
milk to  remain  in  the  butter. 


30  QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS 

4.  The  excessive  buttermilk  usually  causes 
mottles. 

5.  Too  low  temperature  causes  difficult' churning. 

6.  Low  temperature  increases  the  viscosity  of 
cream. 

7.  Low  temperature  causes  the  granules  to  be- 
come so  hard  that  the  butter  takes  up  salt  slowly, 
and  the  butter  is  difficult  to  work. 

8.  If  the  granules  are  too  firm  and  cold,  too 
much  Avater  is  lost  from  the  butter  in  working,  de- 
creasing the  overrun. 

What  conditions  influence  the  hardness  of  the  fat- 
globules  in  churning? 

1.  The  breed  of  the  cow. 

2.  Individuality  of  the  cow. 

3.  The  food  of  the  cow. 

4.  Season  of  the  year. 

5.  Stage  of  lactation  period. 

6.  Abnormal  conditions. 

Under    normal    conditions    at    v^^hat    temperature 
should  cream  be  churned? 
Between  50°   and  60°   F.     A  very  popular  tem- 
perature is  56°   F.     The  churning  should  be  com- 
pleted in  at  least  one  hour. 

What  is  a  combined  churn? 

One  in  which  cream  can  be  churned  and  contain- 
ing some  device  for  working  the  butter. 

What  are  the  advantages  of  a  combined  churn? 

I.  Butter  can  be  churned,  washed,  salted,  and 
worked  without  being  removed  from  the  churn. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  3I 

2.  Saves  time  and  labor. 

3.  Temperature  of  butter  can  be  easily  con- 
trolled. 

4.  Flies  are  kept  away  from  the  butter  during 
working. 

What  are  the  names  of  some  of  the  best  combined 
churns  on  the  market? 

1.  Victor. 

2.  Wizard. 

3.  Simplex. 

4.  Disbrow. 

5.  Dairy  Queen. 

6.  Squeezer. 

How  should  a  new  churn  be  prepared  for  use? 

It  should  first  be  washed  out  with  plain,  warm 
water.  Then  rinsed  with  hot  salt  water.  Then 
salt  water  should  be  left  in  the  churn  for  at  least 
24  hours,  so  that  the  pores  of  the  wood  become 
closed  and  filled  with  salt.  If  desirable,  the  churn 
may  be  steamed  on  the  inside  before  soaking  in  salt 
water.  After  this  treatment  the  churn  is  rinsed 
with  cold  water  and  is  then  ready  for  use. 

How  should  a  churn  be  treated  to  keep  it  in  a  clean, 
sweet  condition? 

After  use  the  churn  should  be  rinsed  with  warm 
water,  then  rinsed  again  with  hot  water,  and  finally 
rinsed  again  in  hot  water  in  which  some  lime  has 
been  dissolved.  Sometimes  steam  and  salt  solu- 
tions are  used  for  the  final  rinsing,  but  they  are 
not  so  satisfactory  as  hot  lime  water.  Nothing  will 
do  more  to  preserve  the  sweet,  fresh  condition  of 
the  churn  than  this  simple  method. 


32  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

How  can  the   growth  af  mold  be  prevented  in  a 
churn  not  in  constant  use? 

Before  putting-  the  churn  aside  give  it  a  thorough 
soaking  in  a  hot  solution  of  bichlorid  of  mercury, 
Strength  one  in  a  thousand.  This  is  made  by  dis- 
solving yYi  grains  of  mercuric  chlorid  in  i  pint 
hot  water.  The  churn  should  then  be  kept  in  a 
dry  place.  Before  using  the  churn  again,  it  should 
be  thoroughly  washed  with  hot  salt  water  in  order 
to  remove  all  traces  of  mercury,  which  is  a  poison. 

When  can  the  greatest  amount  of  agitation  be  ob- 
tained in  a  churn? 

When  it  is  about  one-third  full. 

What  is  the  effect  of  revolving  a  churn  too  fast? 
The  agitation  is  lessened  and  may  even  stop. 

What  is  the  effect  of  revolving  a  churn  too  slowly? 

The  cream  is  not  agitated  sufficiently,  and  churn- 
ing is  greatly  delayed. 

Why  should  cream  be  strained  before  churning? 

1.  It  separates  all  lumps. 

2.  Separates  other  insoluble  bodies  that  may  be 
present. 

3.  Assists  in  preventing  mottled  color. 

Why  is  artificial  butter  color  used? 

To  maintain  a  uniform  color  in  the  butter  during 
all  seasons  of  the  year. 

What  is  used  to  color  butter? 

Most  color  is  prepared  from  the  seed  fruit  of  the 


ON    BUTTERMAKING  33 

annatto  tree.  Carrot  juice  and  the  extract  from 
several  plants  have  been  used.  Several  artificial 
colors  have  been  marketed,  but  the  United  States 
pure  food  laws  prevent  their  use  in  butter. 

How  much  coloring  is  used  in  buttermaking  ? 

This  depends  upon  the  market  requirements, 
upon  the  season  of  the  year,  upon  the  strength  of 
the  color,  and  upon  the  natural  color  and  richness 
of  the  milk  fat. 

The  amount  varies  between  none  and  2  ounces 
for  every  100  pounds  of  milk  fat.  Most  eastern 
markets  want  a  pale,  straw  color,  while  the  south- 
ern markets  demand  a  much  redder  color. 

How  is  color  added  to  butter? 

The  color  is  diluted  in  a  small  amount  of  cold 
water  and  added  to  the  cream  before  churning.  If 
for  any  reason  it  is  forgotten  at  this  time,  it  can  be 
mixed  with  the  salt  and  applied,  but  this  is  not  a 
desirable  method,  as  the  butter  is  usually  over- 
worked in  so  doing. 

What  objection  is  there  to  mixing  sour  cream  and 
sweet  cream  before  churning? 

1.  The  creams  do  not  mix  well. 

2.  The  sour  cream  churns  more  rapidly  than  the 
sweet. 

3.  There  is  usually  heavy  loss  of  fat  in  the 
buttermilk. 

4.  The  color  may  be  mottled  from  casein  co- 
agulated by  acid  in  the  sour  cream. 


34  QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS 

How    would    you    tell    when    cream    is    churned 
enough? 

1.  By  the  size  of  the  butter  granules.  These 
should  be  about  the  size  of  corn  kernels. 

2.  By  the  appearance  of  the  buttermilk.  This 
should  be  bluish  in  color  and  clear. 

3.  By  the  height  at  which  the  butter  floats  on 
the  buttermilk.     Should  be  well  up. 

What  is  the  effect  of  churning  the  cream  too  long? 

1.  The  granules  of  butter  become  too  large  and 
retain  too  much  buttermilk,  which  is  difficult  to 
remove. 

2.  There  is  danger  of  incorporating  too  much 
moisture  in  the  butter. 

3.  If  the  cream  is  of  poor  flavor,  the  excessive 
moisture  and  buttermilk  injures  the  keeping  quality 
of  the  butter. 

4.  The  texture  of  the  butter  is  injured. 

What  is  the  effect  of  too  much  buttermilk  in  butter  ? 

1.  The  sugar  in  the  buttermilk  sours  and  in- 
jures the  flavor. 

2.  The  casein  usually  causes  mottled  color. 

3.  Keeping  quality  is  injured. 

4.  The  texture  of  the  butter  is  injured. 

What  is  the  effect  of  stopping  the  churning  process 
too  soon? 

1.  The  butter  granules  are  too  small  and  many 
of  them  are  lost  in  the  buttermilk. 

2.  There  is  difficulty  in  holding  moisture  in  the 
butter  and  it  may  cause  leaking  butter. 


ON    BUTTERMAKING  35 

What  are  the  causes  of  difficult  churning? 

1.  Small  fat-globules.  Usually  found  in  milk 
from  stripper  cows  or  cows  far  advanced  in  the 
lactation  period. 

2.  Cream  may  become  frothy,  due  to  some  ab- 
normal condition  of  the  milk  from  a  diseased  cow, 
or  from  foreign  substances  of  an  alkaline  nature 
added  to  milk  or  cream. 

3.  The  milk  or  cream  may  be  "yeasty." 

4.  The  churn  may  be  too  full. 

5.  Cream  may  be  too  thick. 

6.  Cream  may  be  too  thin. 

7.  Cream  may  be  too  cold. 

8.  Cream  may  be  too  sweet. 

What  are  the  remedies  for  difficult  churning? 

1.  See  that  the  cream  is  not  too  thick  nor  too 
thin,  of  proper  acidity,  and  of  correct  temperature. 

2.  Do  not  overfill  the  churn. 

3.  If  due  to  the  milk  from  a  certain  cow  or  herd, 
keep  this  by  itself. 

4.  Succulent  food,  such  as  ensilage,  usually 
remedies  the  trouble  in  milk  from  errors  in  dry 
feeding. 

5.  Ripen  the  cream  to  a  higher  acidity. 

6.  Use  a  good  commercial  starter. 

What  is  the  cause  of  frothy  cream? 

1.  Abnormal  condition  of  cream  due  to  diseased 
condition  of  cows. 

2.  Certain  bacteria  and  bacterial  products. 

3.  "  Yeasts."     Quite  common  in  recent  years. 

4.  Alkaline  preservatives  added  to  milk  or  cream. 


36  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

5.  Cream  too  sweet. 

6.  Churn  too  full. 

How  would  you  treat  cream  that  froths  in  a  churn? 

1.  Correct  errors  in  temperature,  acidity,  fullness 
of  churn,  etc. 

2.  For  immediate  treatment,  add  some  warm 
water  around  the  outside  of  the  churn. 

3.  If  a  combined  churn  is  used,  start  the  rollers. 

4.  Some  warm  water  may  be  added  directly  to 
the  cream. 

5.  By  allowing  the  churn  to  stand  quiet  a  while 
the  froth  may  settle  and  churning  can  then  be  com- 
pleted. 

6.  Pasteurize  the  cream. 

7.  Use  a  good  commercial  starter  and  ripen  the 
cream  a  little  more  than  usual. 

8.  AVhen  the  trouble  continues  after  the  above 
treatments,  thorough  investigation  should  be  made 
into  the  milk  supply  and  the  source  of  all  water 
supply. 

Why  is  butter  washed? 

To  remove  as  much  of  the  buttermilk  as  possible. 

When  should  butter  be  washed? 

Just  as  soon  as  all  the  free  buttermilk  can  be  re- 
moved. 

What  temperature  should  the  wash  water  be? 

It  should  be  as  nearly  like  that  of  the  cream 
when  churned  as  is  consistent  with  other  condi- 
tions. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  37 

What  IS  the  effect  of  using  too  cold  water? 

1.  It  chills  the  butter. 

2.  It  hinders  the  escape  of  buttermilk. 

3.  It  may  cause  a  tallowy  appearance  in  the 
butter. 

4.  It  lessens  the  moisture  content  of  the  butter. 

What  is  the  effect  of  using  too  warm  water? 

1.  It  tends  to  increase  the  moisture  content  of 
butter. 

2.  It  injures  the  texture  of  the  butter,  causing 
it  to  become  greasy  and  soft. 

What  is  the  effect  of  excessive  washing  of  butter? 

1.  It  removes  some  of  the  flavor  from  butter. 

2.  If  the  water  is  warm  it  increases  the  moisture 
content  of  the  butter. 

3.  It  injures  the  texture  of  the  butter. 

How  should  butter  be  washed? 

Water  at  about  the  same  temperature  as  the 
buttermilk  should  be  put  on  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  remove  all  the  buttermilk.  Sometimes  one  wash- 
ing is  enough,  but  usually  two  or  three  waters  must 
be  used.  When  the  last  water  is  used  it  should 
run  away  perfectly  clear.  If  the  granules  of  butter 
are  very  soft,  the  last  water  can  be  colder  than 
the  first,  but,  in  order  to  retain  a  high  moisture 
content  in  the  butter,  the  water  must  not  be  too 
cold. 

Sometimes  Ivhen  the  flavor  of  butter  is  not  good, 
excessive  washing  is  resorted  to,  but  this  does  not 
usually  have  a  very  beneficial  effect,  especially  if 
the  bad  flavor  is  of  bacterial  origin.     Some  volatile 


38  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

food  flavors,  however,  are  materially  decreased  by 
washing  in  good  water. 

What    conditions    affect   the    moisture    content    of 
butter? 

1.  Richness  of  the  cream. 

2.  Temperature  of  the  cream  and  wash  water. 

3.  Size  of  butter  granules. 

4.  Time  allowed  butter  in  buttermilk  and  wash 
water. 

5.  Amount  of  working  the  butter  receives. 

6.  Minor  mechanical  conditions. 

What  is  the  maximum  amount  of  moisture  in  butter 
allowed  by  the  laws  of  United  States? 
The  moisture  content  of  butter  must  be  under  16 
per  cent. 

What   methods    are    used   for   purifying   water   at 
creameries? 

1.  Filtration  through  a  sand  filter 

2.  Pasteurization. 

Pure  spring  water  or  good  well  water  does  not 
need  purifying. 

What  is  the  effect  of  the  presence  of  buttermilk  in 
butter? 

1.  The  keeping  quality  of  the  butter  is  injured. 

2.  The  presence  of  casein  usually  causes  a 
mottled  color. 

3.  The  texture  of  the  butter  is  injured,  the 
milky  brine  being  quite  objectionable  to  many  con- 
sumers. 


ON  BUTTERMAKING  39 

What  are  the  reasons  for  salting  butter? 

1.  To  give  it  flavor. 

2.  To  assist  in  expelling  buttermilk. 

3.  To  increase  the  keeping  quality. 

Upon  what  conditions  does  the  amount  of  salt  used 
depend? 

1.  Upon  the  market  requirements. 

2.  The  moisture  content  of  the  butter. 

3.  The  strength  of  the  salt. 

4.  The  amount  of  working  the  butter  receives. 

5.  Size  of  the  butter  granules  at  time  of  salting. 

6.  Upon  the  flavor  of  the  butter. 

What  is  the  composition  of  pure  dairy  salt? 

Sodium  chlorid 99. 18% 

Magnesium  chlorid. .        .05% 

Gypsum    54% 

Calcium  chlorid 19% 

Insoluble  matter 03% 

Moisture 01  % 

100.00% 

Upon  what  does   the  amount  of  salt  dissolved  in 
butter  depend? 

1.  Upon  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  butter. 

2.  Upon  the  purity  of  the  salt. 

How    does    salt    increase    the    keeping    quality    of 
butter? 

1.  By  its  antiseptic  power. 

2.  By  assisting  in  the  removal  of  buttermilk. 


46  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

What  is  brine-salting? 

The  butter  is  salted  by  being  washed  or  soaked  in 
a  salted  water. 

What  are  the  advantages  of  brine-salting? 

1.  Overrun  can  be  increased. 

2.  There  is  very  little  danger  of  mottled  color. 

3.  Butter  requires  less  working. 

What  are  the  disadvantages  of  brine-salting? 

1.  It  is  too  expensive. 

2.  Requires  considerable  water. 

3.  Increased  labor. 

4.  Difficulty   in   getting   sufficient   salt   into  the 
butter. 

5.  May  cause  excessive  amount  of  moisture  in 
butter. 

6.  Color  may  be  streaked  if  insufficient  working 
is  given. 

What  is  the  effect  of  salt  in  buttermaking? 

1.  Helps  to  expel  buttermilk. 

2.  Gives  flavor  to  butter. 

3.  Adds  weight  to  butter. 

4.  Causes  the  color  of  butter  to  become  more 
pronounced. 

5.  It  acts   as   a   preservative   and   increases  the 
keeping  quality  of  butter. 

6.  Affects  the  body  and  texture  of  butter. 

What  is  the  average  salt  content  of  butter? 
About  2  per  cent. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  4f 

How  much  salt  can  be  incorporated  in  butter? 

As  much  as  7  per  cent  or  8  per  cent,  but  then 
most  of  it  is  in  an  undissolved  state.  It  is  difficult 
to  incorporate  more  than  3  per  cent  of  dissolved 
salt. 

How  is  butter  tested  for  its  salt  content? 

1.  Weigh  into  a  glass  beaker  10  grams  of  butter. 
Add  about  20  c.  c.  water  and  warm  the  mixture  to 
melt  the  butter.  Then  transfer  the  butter  and 
water  to  a  separatory  funnel.  Insert  the  stopper 
and  shake  for  a  few  minutes.  Then  allow  the  mix- 
ture to  stand  a  few  minutes  until  any  remaining 
fat  has  collected  on  the  surface.  Then  draw  the 
water  into  a  flask,  being  sure  that  no  fat  passes 
through.  Again,  add  hot  water  to  the  beaker  and 
repeat  the  washing  in  the  funnels  several  times, 
using  15  c.  c.  water  each  time. 

Determine  the  sodium  chlorid  or  salt  in  a  meas- 
ured part  (10  c.  c.)  of  the  liquid  by  titrating  with 
standard  silver  nitrate  solution,  using  potassium 
chromate  as  an  indicator. 

One  c.  c.  -—-  silver  nitrate  solution  equals  .005837 
grams  of  salt. 

To  determine  the  total  amount  of  salt  divide  the 
total  number  c.  c.  of  water  used  by  10  and  multiply 
by  .005837.  This  will  give  the  total  number  grams 
of  salt  in  10  grams  of  butter. 

Then,  knowing  the  amount  present  in  10  grams, 
it  is  an  easy  matter  to  determine  the  amount  in  100 
grams  by  multiplying  by  10.  This  gives  the  per- 
centage of  salt  in  the  butter  tested. 

2.  Gray's  salt  test.  A  representative  lo-gram 
sample  of  butter  is  placed  in  a  small  glass  dish. 


42  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

The  dish  is  then  half  filled  with  boiling  water  and 
the  mixture  of  fat  and  water  poured  into  a  500  c.  c. 
glass  flask.  The  dish  is  rinsed  several  times  with 
boiling  water  and  each  time  the  rinsing  is  poured 
into  the  flask.  The  flask  is  then  filled  to  the  500 
c.  c.  mark  with  boiling  water  and  thoroughly- 
shaken.  Then  allow  the  contents  of  the  flask  to 
cool,  and  after  the  fat  has  collected  on  top  and 
solidified,  measure  with  a  pipette  50  c.  c.  of  the 
clear  solution  beneath  the  fat  and  place  it  in  a  clean 
glass  dish.  Fifty  c.  c.  of  a  potassium  chromate  in- 
dicator is  then  added  and  the  solution  titrated  with 
a  standard  silver  nitrate  solution.  The  strength  of 
this  silver  solution  is  such  that  i  c.  c.  of  it  repre- 
sents Yioo  of  I  per  cent  of  salt. 

3.  The  Fitch  salt  test.  A  representative  3.5 
gram  sample  of  butter  is  placed  in  a  300  c.  c.  glass 
flask  and  180  c.  c.  boiling  water  added.  The  flask 
is  then  corked  and  thoroughly  shaken,  care  being 
taken  to  remove  the  cork  often  to  relieve  pressure. 
The  mixture  is  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  after  the 
fat  has  collected  on  top  and  solidified,  17.6  c.  c.  of 
the  clear  solution  beneath  the  fat  is  placed  in  a 
white  cup.  Then  17.6  c.  c.  of  potassium  chromate 
indicator  is  added,  and  the  solution  titrated  with  a 
standard  silver  nitrate  solution  measured  from  a 
graduated  cylinder  till  the  solution  becomes  a  per- 
manent reddish  color.  The  number  c.  c.  silver 
nitrate  used  divided  by  10  equals  per  cent  salt. 

How  should  salt  be  added  to  butter? 

As  soon  as  the  butter  has  been  properly  washed 
the  salt  should  be  applied  by  passing  it  through  a 
fine-meshed  sifter  in  order  to  prevent  lumps  of  salt 


ON  BUTTERMAKING  43 

entering  the  butter.  The  salt  should  be  given 
plenty  of  time  to  dissolve  before  the  butter  receives 
its  final  working. 

What  is  "  gritty  "  butter?  , 

Butter  in  which  part  of  the  salt  remains  in  an 
undissolved  state. 

What  are  the  causes  of  "gritty"  butter? 

1.  Excessive  salting. 

2.  Impure  salt. 

3.  Small  water  content  of  butter. 

4.  Insufficient  working. 

5      Uneven  distribution  of  salt. 
6.     Failure  to  allow  butter  to  stand  after  salting 
before  final  working. 

What  is  mottled  butter? 

Butter  which  is  uneven  in  color,  having  lighter 
and  darker  spots. 

What  are  the  causes  of  mottled  butter? 

1.  Specks  of  casein  from  buttermilk. 

2.  Improper  incorporation  of  salt. 

3.  Yeasts. 

4.  Failure  to  strain  the  cream  or  starter. 

5.  Poor  coloring. 

How  can  mottled  butter  be  prevented? 

1.  By  thoroughly   removing  the   buttermilk  by 

washing. 

2.  By  allowing  the  salt  plenty  of  time  to  dis- 
solve before  completing  the  butter  working. 

3.  By  using  pure  salt. 


44  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

4.  By  giving  the  butter  sufficient  working. 

5.  Always  strain  cream  and  starter. 

6.  By  using  reliable  coloring. 

How  can  mottles  be  removed  from  butter? 

Most  mottles  can  be  removed  by  excessive  work- 
ing of  the  butter. 

Why  is  butter  worked? 

1.  To  assist  in  distributing  salt  through  the 
butter. 

2.  To  assist  in  expelling  buttermilk  and  water. 

3.  To  bring  the  granules  of  butter  into  a  more 
compact  form. 

How  much  should  butter  be  worked? 

This  depends  on  the  condition  of  the  butter  and 
the  style  of  butter  worker.  Butter  should  be 
worked  till  the  salt  is  dissolved,  till  the  color  is 
uniform  and  the  moisture  content  is  satisfactory. 
About  12  to  20  revolutions  of  most  combined 
churns  is  sufficient. 

What  is  the  average  composition  of  butter? 

Fat 84.00% 

Water   12.73% 

Curd    1.3  % 

Salt  and  ash 1-97% 


100.00% 


When  is  cheesemaking  more  profitable  than  butter- 
making? 
When   butter   sells   for   less   than   two   and   one- 
third  times  as  much  as  cheese. 


ON    BUTTERMAKING  45 

What  amount  of  fat  should  be  present  in  butter? 

Not  less  than  80  per  cent. 

How  should  butter  be  packed  for  shipment? 

This  depends  on  the  requirements  of  the  different 
markets.  Regulation  wooden  tubs  containing  10, 
20,  30,  or  60  pounds  are  used  most  extensively  in 
the  United  States.  In  Canada  most  of  the  butter 
made  for  export  is  packed  in  square  boxes,  holding 
about  56  pounds.  Dairy  butter  is  usually  packed 
in  earthen  jars,  and  nothing  gives  better  satisfaction. 

In  many  creameries  the  butter  is  wrapped  in 
pound  prints  and  packed  in  boxes  for  shipment. 
Butter  in  this  form  usually  brings  at  least  one  cent 
per  pound  more  than  tub  butter.  The  prints  should 
be  wrapped  in  parchment  paper,  upon  which  the 
name  of  the  creamery  is  neatly  printed. 

How  are  butter  tubs  prepared  for  use? 

For  about  24  hours  before  the  tubs  are  to  be 
filled  with  butter  they  should  be  soaked  in  a  warm, 
saturated  brine.  This  helps  to  destroy  mold  and 
closes  the  pores  of  the  wood.  The  covers  should 
be  kept  on  the  tubs  to  prevent  warping.  Just 
before  the  tubs  are  to  be  used  they  should  be  rinsed 
with  warm  water,  then  steamed,  and  then  cooled 
with  cold  water.  They  are  then  ready  to  be  lined 
with  paper,  and  then  filled  with  butter.  The  paper 
linings  and  circles  should  be  soaked  in  a  strong 
brine  for  a  few  hours  before  used.  Many  manu- 
facturers are  now  using  tubs  coated  with  paraffin. 
This  almost  entirely  prevents  mold  growth,  and  the 
tubs  are  ready  for  paper  lining  as  soon  as  rinsed 
in  cold  water, 


4.6  QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS 

How    can    mold    be    prevented    from    growing    in 
butter? 

1.  By  sufficiently  soaking  the  tubs  and  linings 
in  a  strong  salt  solution  before  using. 

2.  By  paraffining  the  tubs  thoroughly  on  the 
inside. 

3.  By  soaking  the  tubs  and  paper  linings  in 
solutions  of  formaldehyde. 

What   wood   is   the   best   for  butter-tub   construc- 
tion? 

For  the  larger  tubs  ash  is  used  and  for  the  smaller 
ones,  spruce. 

How  should  butter  be  packed  into  tubs? 

The  wooden  butter  ladles  should  first  be  cooled 
with  cold  water  to  prevent  butter  sticking  to  them. 
The  butter  should  then  be  firmly  packed  in  small 
amounts  at  a  time  and  using  plenty  of  muscle  in  the 
work.  The  circumference  should  receive  more 
packing  than  the  center,  because  when  the  butter 
is  turned  out  of  the  tub  for  cutting,  it  is  very 
necessary  that  the  surface  be  free  from  all  me- 
chanical holes.  Solid  packing  is  of  considerable 
aid  in  preventing  the  entrance  of  mold.  The  tubs 
should  be  filled  to  the  top  with  butter.  In  filling, 
the  butter  should  be  heaped  up  and  then  leveled 
off  by  drawing  a  small  wire  or  string  across  the 
surface.  The  extra  butter  can  then  be  rolled  off 
and  the  surface  is  left  smooth  and  level. 

The  paper  linings  should  be  so  fitted  that  they 
overlap  about  i  inch  on  the  top  surface.  Then  on 
top  a  cotton  circle  should  be  placed  and  over  the 
circle  a  small  amount  of  dampened  salt  is  sprinkled. 


ON    BUTTERMAKING  47 

The  covers  are  then  applied,  the  weight  of  butter 
marked  on  the  tub  and  it  is  ready  for  market. 

What  are  the  qualities  of  ideal  butter? 

It  should  have  a  clean,  mild,  creamy  flavor,  with 
a  pronounced,  mild,  pleasant  aroma.  It  should 
have  close,  solid,  waxy  body,  free  from  butter- 
milk and  undissolved  salt.  The  color  should  be 
uniform  and  natural,  and  the  finish  should  be  neat, 
clean,  and  attractive. 

How  is  butter  judged? 

A  sample  is  drawn  from  the  package  by  the  use 
of  a  steel  butter  trier.  As  soon  as  drawn  it  is 
passed  underneath  the  nose  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
tecting the  aroma.  The  color  is  then  examined  for 
defects  and  incidentally  the  brine  is  examined  for 
free  buttermilk. 

The  butter  is  then  tasted  and  at  the  same  time 
tested  for  undissolved  salt  by  dissolving  a  small 
amount  of  butter  between  the  tongue  and  roof  of 
the  mouth.  The  grain  and  body  are  also  noticed 
and  finally  the  finish  and  style  of  the  package.  It 
is  usually  better  to  criticise  the  finish  first,  before 
it  is  disfigured  in  any  way. 

What  form  is  used  for  scoring  butter? 

Flavor 45 

Body   25 

Color 15 

Salt    10 

Style    5 


100 


4-8  QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS 

What  are  some  of  the  undesirable  flavors  commonly 
found  in  butter? 

Rancid,  unclean,  cowy,  fishy,  weedy  and  tallowy, 
etc. 

What  are  the  common  causes  of  undesirable  flavors 
in  butter? 

1.  Impure  milk  supply. 

2.  Cream  exposed  to  bad  odors. 

3.  Cream  too  old  or  too  ripe  before  churning. 

4.  Undesirable  bacteria  found  in  all  sorts  of  dirt 
and  dirty  places. 

5.  Impure  water. 

6.  Foods  that  impart  volatile  flavors  such  as 
turnips,  leeks,  garlic,  rape,  etc. 

7.  Too  much  buttermilk  retained  in  butter. 

8.  Holding  butter  at  too  warm  temperature. 

A  bacterial  flavor  can  usually  be  told  from  a  food 
flavor,  in  that  a  food  flavor  generally  passes  off  by 
pasteurizing  and  by  the  use  of  a  commercial  starter, 
while  a  bacterial  flavor  usually  becomes  worse  with 
age. 

V/hat  is  the  difference  between  creamery,  process, 
renovated,  factory,  packing-stock,  and  grease 
butter? 

Creamery  butter  is  butter  made  in  a  creamery  from 
cream  separated  at  the  creamery  or  gathered  from 
farmers. 

Process  or  renovated  butter  is  butter  made  by 
melting  butter,  clarifying  the  fat  therefrom  and  re- 
churning  the  same  with  fresh  buttermilk,  milk, 
cream,  skim  milk,  or  other  such  material. 


ON    BUTTERMAKING  49 

Factory  butter  is  butter  that  is  collected  in  rolls, 
lumps,  crocks,  and  such  forms,  and  reworked  by  a 
dealer  or  shipper. 

Packing-stock  butter  is  butter  that  is  originally 
farm-made,  reworked  without  additional  moisture 
or  salt. 

Grease  butter  is  made  up  of  all  butter  that  classes 
below  third  grade  on  the  market.  It  must  be  free 
from  adulteration. 

What  is  oleomargarine? 

The  United  States  law  defines  oleomargarine  as 
any  substance  containing  animal  or  vegetable  fats 
or  oils,  or  any  such  products  made  in  imitation  or 
semblance  of  butter,  or  when  so  made  calculated  or 
intended  to  be  used  or  sold  as  butter. 

What  are  the  laws  of  the  United  States  regarding 
oleomargarine  ? 

The  laws  on  this  substance  are  so  changeable 
that  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  set  law  for  any 
state  in  such  a  book  as  this. 

Some  states  prevent  the  manufacture  of  oleomar- 
garine, others  allow  it  to  be  manufactured  if  it  is 
labeled  and  sold  as  oleomargarine,  and  a  tax  of  so 
much  per  pound  is  paid,  while  still  others  do  not 
require  any  tax.  Some  states,  too,  have  laws  pre- 
venting the  use  of  coloring  in  products  made  in 
imitation  of  butter.  In  fact,  the  manufacturers  of 
these  products  are  so  ingenious  that  they  keep  law- 
makers busy  in  controlling  them.  The  following 
extract  from  the  laws  of  New  York  state  give  c 
good  idea  of  the  nature  of  an  oleomargarine  law— 
26-38,  page  18; 


50  QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS 

No  person,  by  himself,  his  agents,  or  his  em- 
ployees, shall  produce  or  manufacture  out  of  or 
from  any  animal  fats  or  animal  or  vegetable  oils  not 
produced  from  unadulterated  milk  or  cream,  from 
the  same,  the  article  known  as  oleomargarine  or 
any  article  or  product  in  imitation  or  semblance 
of  natural  butter  produced  from  pure  unadulterated 
milk  or  cream  of  the  same ;  or  mix,  compound  with 
or  add  to  milk,  cream  or  butter,  any  acids  or  other 
deleterious  substance  or  any  animal  fats  or  animal 
or  vegetable  oils  not  produced  from  milk  or  cream,  so 
as  to  produce  any  article  or  substance,  or  any  human 
food  in  imitation  or  in  semblance  of  natural  butter. 
Nor  sell,  keep  for  sale,  or  offer  for  sale  any  article  or 
substance  or  compound  made,  manufactured  or  pro- 
duced in  violation  of  the  provision  in  this  section, 
whether  such  article,  substance  or  compound  shall 
be  made  or  produced  in  this  state  or  elsewhere.  Any 
person  manufacturing,  selling,  offering,  or  expos- 
ing for  sale  any  commodity  or  substance  in  imita- 
tion or  semblance  of  butter,  the  product  of  the 
dairy,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  violation  of  [the  agricul- 
tural law]  this  chapter,  whether  he  sells  such  com- 
modity or  substance  as  butter,  oleomargarine,  or 
any  other  name  or  designation  whatsoever,  and  ir- 
respective of  any  representations  he  may  make 
relative  to  such  commodity  or  substance.  Any 
dealer  in  any  article  or  product,  the  manufacturing 
or  sale  of  which  is  prohibited  by  this  act,  who  shall 
keep,  store  or  display  such  article  or  product  with 
other  merchandise  or  stock  in  his  place  of  business, 
shall  be  deemed  to  have  the  same  in  his  possession 
for  sale. 

What  is  whey  butter? 

Whey  butter  is  butter  made  from  the  fat  in  cream 
separated    from    whey,    which    is    a   by-product   in 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  5 1 

cheesemaklng.  Its  quality  depends  largely  upon 
the  quality  of  the  milk  and  whey,  and  the  amount 
to  be  made  depends  upon  the  amount  of  fat  lost  in 
the  whey  in  the  process  of  cheesemaking.  The 
amount  varies  between  2  pounds  to  5  pounds  in 
every  1,000  pounds  whey. 

What  are  the  common  sources  of  loss  in  butter- 
making  ? 

1.  Improper  care  of  the  milk. 

2.  Carelessness  in  sampling  milk  or  cream. 

3.  Inaccuracy  in  reading  fat  in  test  bottles. 

4.  Carelessness  or  inability  in  running  separa- 
tors. 

5.  Errors  in  cream  ripening. 

6.  Spilling  milk  or  cream  while  handling  it. 

7.  Inaccurate  scales. 

8.  Carelessness  or  inability  in  churning. 

9.  Losses  in  buttermilk. 

10.  Moisture  content  of  butter  may  be  too  low. 

11.  Moisture  may  not  be  properly  incorporated, 
allowing  great  shrinkage  in  weight. 

12.  Printing  machines  may  not  be  accurate,  giv- 
ing overweight. 

How  is  butter  tested  for  its  fat  content? 

I.     By  the  ether  method. 

Evaporate  a  known  weight,  2  to  3  grams,  to  dry- 
ness in  a  flat-bottom  dish.  Then  wash  the  total 
contents  of  the  dish  upon  a  weighed  filter  paper, 
using  about  50  c.  c.  of  ether  or  naphtha.  Then 
wash  free  from  fat  the  residue  on  the  filter,  with 
ether  or  naphtha.  The  filter  is  then  dried  at  100° 
C.  to  constant  weight  and  weighed.     The  percent- 


52  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

age  of  fat  is  determined  by  the  difiference  between 
weight  of  butter  and  weight  of  fat. 

2.     By  Babcock  test. 

Weigh  4  grams  of  butter  into  a  cream  bottle,  add- 
ing enough  water  to  make  i8  grams  in  the  bottle. 
Add  1 8  grams  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  after  thorough 
mixing,  whirl  in  the  centrifuge  for  five  minutes. 
Add  hot  water  at  200°  F.  to  raise  the  fat  into  the 
graduated  part  of  the  neck.  Whirl  again  for  two 
minutes,  then  multiply  the  reading  on  the  bottle 
by  4-5- 

How  is  the  moisture  content  of  butter  determined? 

1.  By  chemical  analysis. 

2.  By  practical  moisture  tests. 

What  are  the  names  of  the  more  commonly  used 
moisture  tests? 

1.  Cornell  test. 

2.  Mitchell-Walker. 

3.  Irish. 

4.  Gray's. 

5.  Farrington. 

How  should  a  representative  sample  of  butter  be 

secured  and  prepared  for  making  a  moisture, 

salt,  or  fat  test? 

From  the  mass  of  butter  to  be  tested  take  several 

samples  from  various  parts.     These  samples,  when 

added    together,     should    make    about    6    ounces. 

These  are  placed  in  a  wide-mouth  sample  bottle  or 

fruit  jar  and  placed  in  hot  water  until  the  butter 

melts    to    the    consistency   of    thin    cream.     While 

melting,   the   butter   should   be   thoroughly   stirred 

with  a  table  knife  or  similar  instrument.  The  bottle 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  53 

should  then  be  well  shaken  to  insure  a  uniform 
mixing  of  the  sample.  The  bottle  is  then  placed  in 
cold  water  to  solidify,  but  while  cooling  the  butter 
should  be  stirred  continuously.  As  soon  as  the 
butter  has  become  fairly  solid  or  plastic,  the  sample 
for  testing  can  be  secured.  If  in  melting  the  butter 
becomes  oily,  great  care  must  be  used  to  reincorpo- 
rate the  water  evenly  during  the  cooling. 

Describe  and  give  directions  for  testing  butter  with 
the  Cornell  moisture  test. 

This  is  a  simple,  accurate,  and  durable  test  re- 
cently prepared  by  Mr.  H.  E.  Ross  of  the  dairy 
department  of  New  York  state  college  of  agricul- 
ture. 

The  test  resembles  the  Irish  test,  but  has  several 
important  improvements. 

A  lo-gram  sample  of  butter  is  secured  in  the 
usual  way,  and  is  placed  in  a  special  cast  aluminum 
cup.  The  cup  is  then  held  over  a  flame  with  special 
forceps  or  placed  on  any  heated  surface. 

The  important  features  of  the  test  are  the  use  of 
the  special  cup  and  the  use  of  a  thin  sheet  of  as- 
bestos between  the  flame  or  heated  surface  and  the 
cup.  The  asbestos  prevents  all  sputtering  of  the 
heating  butter  and  eliminates  to  a  great  extent 
the  danger  of  charring. 

The  sample  is  heated  till  all  moisture  is  driven 
ofif.  This  usually  takes  about  25  minutes,  and  is 
indicated  by  the  casein  losing  its  snow-white  color 
and  becoming  brown.  The  sample  is  then  cooled 
and  reweighed  with  a  special  scale  upon  which  the 
percentage  moisture  can  be  read  directly  and  accu- 
rately. 


54  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

Describe  and  give  directions  for  using  the  Irish 
moisture  test. 
A  representative  logram  sample  of  butter  is  ob- 
tained and  placed  in  a  small  metal  cup,  then  held 
over  an  alcohol  flame  with  a  pair  of  special  forceps 
until  all  moisture  has  evaporated  from  it.  While 
the  butter  is  heating  it  foams  considerably.  As 
soon  as  the  foaming  has  ceased,  and  before  the  fat 
begins  to  char,  a  small  mirror  is  held  over  the  cup 
to  show  if  any  moisture  still  remains.  \Mien  the 
sample  is  thus  freed  from  moisture  it  is  cooled  to 
room  temperature  and  reweighed  upon  a  special 
scale  by  which  the  difference  between  the  weights 
of  the  butter  before  and  after  heating  is  indicated 
in  the  form  of  moisture  percentage  by  the  use  of 
small  percentage  weights. 

Describe    and    give    directions    for    using    Gray's 
moisture  test. 

This  test  consists  of  a  scale,  a  glass  flask,  a  gradu- 
ated glass  tube,  a  condenser,  an  amyl  reagent,  and 
an  alcohol  lamp. 

A  representative  lo-gram  sample  of  butter  is 
placed  in  the  glass  flask.  To  this  6  c.  c.  of  amyl 
reagent  is  added  and  the  dififerent  parts  of  the  test 
then  connected  for  use.  The  butter  and  amyl  mix- 
ture is  heated  over  a  flame  and  the  moisture  is 
driven  oflf  into  a  graduated  tube  in  the  form  of 
steam,  where  it  condenses  upon  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  condenser,  which  contains  cold  water. 
The  moisture  collects  in  the  graduated  tube  and 
can  be  read  in  the  form  of  percentage.  The  heat- 
ing is  stopped  as  soon  as  the  mixture  in  the  flask 
becomes    brown    and    the    crackling   noise    ceases. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  55 

This  usually  requires  about  six  minutes.  Should 
too  much  heat  be  applied  at  once,  the  steam  may 
go  up  above  the  15  per  cent  mark.  This  should 
be  prevented  by  withdrawing  the  heat  for  a  short 
time.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  collecting 
all  the  moisture  in  the  graduated  part  if  reliable 
readings  or  results  are  to  be  secured. 

Describe  and  give  directions  for  using  the  Mitchell- 
Walker  moisture  test. 

The  apparatus  in  this  test  consists,  of  a  metal 
evaporating  cup,  condenser,  graduated  glass  re- 
ceiver, scale  for  weighing  sample,  spirit  lamp,  amy! 
acetate  reagent,  and  a  stand  to  support  the  appa- 
ratus. 

A  representative  lo-gram  sample  of  butter  is 
placed  in  the  metal  cup.  To  this  is  added  10  c.  c. 
of  the  amyl  acetate  reagent.  The  apparatus  is 
then  connected  and  the  condenser  filled  with  cold 
water.  The  alcohol  flame  is  then  applied  under  the 
evaporating  cup.  In  about  a  minute  the  water  and 
reagent  will  begin  to  pass  over  and  pass  from  the 
condenser  tube  into  the  receiver.  After  all  the 
water  has  been  evaporated  from  the  cup,  the  re- 
agent will  cease  or  almost  cease  dropping  for  a 
moment  and  then  begin  again  as  soon  as  it  has 
reached  its  own  boiling  point,  which  is  higher  than 
that  of  the  water.  Continue  to  apply  the  flame  until 
practically  all  the  reagent  is  driven  oflf  and  it  ceases 
to  drop  freely  from  the  condenser-tube.  By  this 
means  all  the  water  is  washed  out  of  the  condenser 
tube  and  the  major  portion  of  the  reagent  is  recov- 
ered. The  flame  is  now  extinguished.  The  mouth 
of  the  receiver  is  corked,  and,  taken  by  the  top,  is 


56  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

shaken  a  few  times  to  detach  any  drops  of  water 
that  may  adhere  to  the  sides. 

The  percentage  moisture  can  now  be  read  in  the 
graduated  receiver.  The  water  is  then  withdrawn 
from  the  receiver  and  then  the  reagent,  which  is 
collected  in  a  bottle  and  preserved  for  use  in  later 
tests. 

Describe  and  give  directions  for  using  Farrington 
moisture  test. 

In  Farrington's  test  lo  grams  of  a  representative 
sample  of  butter  is  placed  in  a  small  dish.  Tlie 
dish  is  then  placed  in  a  special  Farrington  oven 
heated  from  240°  F.  to  270°  F.  under  steam  pres- 
sure.  Here  the  butter  is  left  until  all  moisture  has 
been  evaporated,  as  indicated  by  the  browning  of 
the  casein.  This  usually  takes  about  25  minutes. 
After  the  moisture  has  been  evaporated  the  dish  and 
its  contents  is  reweighed  and  the  difference  from 
the  original  weight  determined.  The  percentage 
moisture  can  thus  be  easily  determined.     Example: 

If  original  weight=io  grams,  and  weight  after 
evaporation's^  grams,  then  evaporation  of  water 
must:=i^  grams. 

If  evaporation  from  10  grams  butter=i3/2  grams, 
then  evaporation  from  100  grams  butter  would  be 
ij_x_ioo^  15  grams. 

.-.  percentage  water  in  butter=i5  per  cent. 

Occasionally  a  balance  is  used  upon  which,  by 
using  a  reverse  beam,  the  percentage  moisture  can 
be  read  direct. 

What  rules  govern  the  sale  of  butter  in  New  York? 

At  the  first  regular  meeting  of  the  executive  com- 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  57 

mittee  in  each  year  the  president  shall  appoint — 
with  the  approval  of  the  executive  committee — a 
butter  committee  to  consist  of  seven  members  of 
the  exchange,  one  of  whom  shall  be  a  member  of 
the  executive  committee,  to  hold  office  until  their 
successo?s  are  duly  appointed.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  butter  committee  to  formulate  such  rules 
and  regulations  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  govern- 
ment of  transactions  between  members  of  the  ex- 
change, and  to  revise  the  same  as  circumstances 
may  require.  Such  rules  and  revisions  shall  be 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  executive  committee. 

Under  direction  of  the  superintendent  of  the  ex- 
change, who  shall  be  instructed  by  the  butter  com- 
mittee, there  shall  be  a  call,  at  such  houf  as  shall  be 
prescribed,  on  each  business  day  of  the  year,  for  the 
purchase  and  sale  of  butter. 

All  transactions  in  butter  between  members  of 
the  exchange  shall  be  governed  by  the  following 
rules: 

CLASSIFICATIONS 

1.  Butter  shall  be  classified  as  creamery,  process, 
factory,  packing  stock,  and  grease  butter. 

Definitions 

2.  Creamery. — Butter  offered  under  this  class- 
ification shall  have  been  made  in  a  creamery  from 
cream  separated  at  the  creamery  or  gathered  from 
farmers. 

3.  Process. — Butter  offered  under  this  class- 
ification shall  be  such  as  is  made  by  melting  butter, 


58  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

clarifying-  the  fat  therefrom  and  rechiirning  the 
same  with  fresh  milk,  cream  or  skim  milk,  or  other 
similar  process. 

4.  Factory. — Butter  offered  under  this  class- 
ification shall  be  such  as  is  collected  in  rolls,  lumps, 
or  in  whole  packages  and  reworked  by  the  dealer 
or  shipper. 

5.  Packing  Stock. — Butter  offered  under  this 
classification  shall  be  original  farm-made  butter  in 
rolls,  lumps,  or  otherwise,  without  additional 
moisture  or  salt. 

6.  Grease  Butter  shall  comprise  all  classes  of 
butter  grading  below  thirds,  or  of  packing  stock 
grading  below  No.  3  as  hereinafter  specified,  free 
from  adulteration. 

GRADES 

7.  Creamery,  process  and  factory  shall  be  graded 
as  specials,  extras,  firsts,  seconds,  and  thirds;  and 
packing  stock  shall  be  graded  as  No.  i,  No.  2  and 
No.  3. 

Definition  of  Grades 

8.  Grades  of  butter  must  conform  to  the  follow- 
ing requirements: 

Specials 

9.  Shall  comprise  the  highest  grades  of  butter 
obtainable  in  the  season  when  offered,  under  the 
various  classifications.     Ninety  per  cent  shall  con- 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  59 

form  to  the  following  standard;  the  balance  shall 
not  grade  below  Extras. 

Flavor. — Must  be  fine,  sweet,  clean  and  fresh,  if 
of  current  make,  and  fine,  sweet,  and  clean,  if  held. 

Body. — Must  be  firm  and  uniform. 

Color. — A  light  straw  shade,  even  and  uniform. 

Salt. — Medium  salted. 

Package. — Sound,  good,  uniform,  and  clean. 

Extras 

10.  Shall  be  a  grade  just  below  specials  and  must 
be  fine  butter  for  the  season  when  made  and  offered, 
under  the  various  classifications.  Ninety  per  cent 
shall  conform  to  the  following  standard;  the  bal- 
ance shall  not  grade  below  Firsts. 

Flavor. — Must  be  sweet,   clean,  and  fresh  if  of 
current  make,  and  sweet  and  clean  if  held. 
Body. — Must  be  good  and  uniform. 
Color. — A  light  straw  shade,  even  and  uniform. 
Salt. — Medium  salted. 
Package. — Sound,  good,  uniform,  and  clean. 

Firsts 

11.  Shall  be  a  grade  just  below  Extras  and 
must  be  good  butter  for  the  season  when  made  and 
offered,  under  the  various  classifications.  Ninety 
per  cent  shall  conform  to  the  following  standard ; 
the  balance  shall  not  grade  below  Seconds. 

Flavor. — Must  be  good,  sweet,  and  fresh,  if  of 
current  make,  and  good  and  sweet  if  held. 
Body. — Must  be  firm  and  fairly  uniform. 


60  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

Color. — Reasonably  uniform,  neither  very  high 
nor  very  light. 

Salt. — May  be  reasonably  high,  light,  or  medium. 
Package. — Sound,  good,  uniform,  and  clean. 

Seconds 

12.  Shall  be  a  grade  just  below  Firsts. 
Flavor. — ^lust  be  reasonably  good. 

Body. — If   creamery,   must   be   solid   boring.      If 
factory  or  process,  must  be  90  per  cent  solid  boring. 
Color. — Fairly  uniform,  but  may  be  mottled. 
Salt. — May  be  high,  medium,  or  light. 
Package. — Good  and  uniform. 

Thirds 

13.  Shall  be  a  grade  below  Seconds  and  may 
consist  of  promiscuous  lots. 

Flavor. — May  be  off-flavored  and  strong  on  tops 
and  sides. 

Body. — Not  required  to  draw  a  full  trier. 

Color. — ]\Iay  be  irregular  or  mottled. 

Salt. — High,  light,  or  irregular. 

Package. — Any  kind  of  package  mentioned  at 
time  of  sale. 

No.  I  Packing  Stock 

14.  Shall  be  sweet  and  sound,  packed  in  large, 
new,  or  good  uniform  second-hand  barrels,  having 
a  wooden  head  in  each  end,  or  in  new  tubs,  either 
to  be  parchment  paper  lined.  Barrels  and  tubs  to 
be  packed  full. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  6l 

No.  2  Packing  Stock 

15.  Shall  be  reasonably  sweet  and  sound,  and 
may  be  packed  in  promiscuous  or  different  kinds  of 
barrels,  tubs,  or  tierces,  without  being  parchment 
paper  lined,  and  may  be  packed  in  either  two- 
headed  or  cloth-covered  barrels. 

No.  3  Packing  Stock 

16.  Shall  be  a  grade  below  No.  2,  and  may  be 
off-flavored,  or  strong;  may  be  packed  in  any  kind 
or  kinds  of  packages. 

17.  Charges  for  inspection  of  packing  stock 
shall  be  the  same  as  the  rules  call  for  on  other 
grades. 

18.  Mold. — There  shall  be  no  grade  for  butter 
that  shows  mold. 

KNOWN  MARKS 

19.  Known  marks  shall  comprise  such  butter  as 
is  known  to  the  trade  under  some  particular  mark 
or  designation  and  must  grade  as  Extras,  or  better, 
if  creamery  or  process,  and  as  Firsts,  or  better,  if 
factory  in  the  season  when  offered,  unless  otherwise 
specified.  Known  marks  to  be  offered  under  the 
call  must  previously  have  been  registered  in  a  book 
kept  by  the  superintendent  for  that  purpose.  If 
process,  the  factory  district  number  and  state  must 
be  registered. 

SALES  UNDER  THE  CALL 

20.  Parties  wishing  to  offer  butter  not  described 


62  QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS 

in   the   foregoing  classifications   and   grades,   must 
specify  its  character. 

21.  All  butter  offered  under  the  call  shall  be 
fresh  made,  current  receipts,  and  shall  be  in  regular 
6o-pound  ash  tubs,  unless  otherwise  specified. 

22.  No  offer  to  buy  or  sell  less  than  25  tubs  spot, 
nor  less  than  50  tubs  for  future  delivery,  nor  bids 
or  offers  of  a  less  fraction  than  ^  cent  per  pound 
shall  be  entertained. 

2^.  Bids  and  offerings  of  not  less  than  50  tubs 
for  future  delivery  may  be  made  for  a  period  of 
30  days.  The  call  for  futures  shall  take  place 
immediately  after  the  call  for  spot  delivery.  On 
all  sales  for  future  delivery,  a  compulsory  mar- 
gin shall  be  deposited  by  each'  party  to  the 
contract  as  specified  in  Rule  2  of  the  executive 
committee. 

24.  The  first  offer  to  buy  or  sell  at  a  price,  shall 
be  accepted  before  subsequent  offers  at  the  same 
figure  are  considered. 

25.  Offers  may  be  withdrawn  at  any  time  before 
acceptance. 

26.  Offers  to  sell  at  a  lower,  or  buy  at  a  higher 
price  shall  vacate  all  previous  bids  and  offerings. 

27.  A  transaction  shall  vacate  all  previous  bids 
and  offerings. 

28.  All  differences  as  to  offers,  acceptances,  with- 
drawals, or  irregular  bids,  shall  be  decided  on  the 
spot  by  the  officer  conducting  the  call,  subject  to 
an  appeal  to  the  members  present.  If  an  appeal 
is  made,  it  shall  be  put  promptly,  and  a  majority  of 
the  members  present  and  voting  shall  settle  the 
difference  finally. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  63 

29.  The  superintendent  shall  have  recorded 
daily,  in  a  book  kept  for  the  purpose,  all  sales  under 
the  call,  and  such  other  sales  on  the  floor  as  may  be 
requested  by  the  parties  thereto,  and  shall  furnish 
certificates  of  sales  to  both  seller  and  buyer. 

30.  Spot  sales  shall  be  for  spot  cash,  and  butter 
sold  for  future  delivery  shall  be  paid  for  when  de- 
livered, unless  otherwise  agreed. 

31.  Unless  otherwise  specified  all  deliveries  shall 
be  from  the  store  of  the  seller,  or  transportation 
terminals,  providing  it  be  in  Manhattan  borough 
below  Canal  street;  otherwise,  the  goods  must  be 
placed  within  said  limits. 

^2.  All  disputes  must  be  settled  while  the  goods 
are  in  the  seller's  possession. 

32A.  When  spot  sales  are  made,  butter  must  be 
ready  for  immediate  delivery. 

33.  All  goods  tendered,  inspector's  certificate  at- 
tached, shall  be  accompanied  by  such  certificate, 
and  be  accepted  by  the  buyer  unconditionally;  pro- 
vided, all  tubs  are  branded  according  to  Rule  6i. 

34.  If  butter  tendered  which  has  not  been  sold 
certificate  attached,  does  not  appear  to  the  buyer  to 
be  of  the  class  and  grade  sold,  the  seller  shall  be 
notified  not  later  than  i  p.  m.  He  may  then  have  it 
inspected,  and  if  it  proves  not  to  fulfill  the  require- 
ments of  the  sale,  he  may  make  a  second  delivery 
not  later  than  3  p.  m. 

35.  If  a  second  tender  is  made  and  appears  not 
of  the  class  and  grade  sold,  the  buyer  must  estab- 
lish the  quality  by  an  official  inspection  for  which 
he  shall  make  application  to  the  superintendent  not 
later  than  4  p.  m.  of  the  day  of  the  sale. 


64  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

When  an  inspection  is  made,  and  shows  the  butter 
to  be  of  the  class  and  grade  sold,  the  buyer  shall 
accept  the  same,  and  pay  for  the  inspection. 

;^6.  In  sales  for  "  future  delivery  "  the  delivery 
requirements  as  to  time,  inspection,  etc.,  shall  be 
the  same  as  on  spot  sales  on  the  date  of  delivery, 
but  the  rules  governing  classification  for  grades  in 
force  at  time  of  such  sales  shall  govern  the  quality 
of  such  deliveries. 

37.  In  sales  "  seller's  option "  the  seller  shall 
notify  the  buyer  of  his  intention  to  make  delivery 
not  later  than  9  a.  m.  on  day  of  delivery.  If 
"  buyer's  option,"  the  buyer  shall  notify  the  seller 
of  his  intention  to  call  for  delivery  at  least  twenty- 
four  hours  before  lo  A.  M.  of  the  day  delivery  is 
demanded. 

38.  On  sales  of  creamery  of  25  tubs,  delivery 
may  be  of  not  more  than  two  marks ;  on  26  to  50 
tubs,  three  marks;  on  51  to  100  tubs,  marks  con- 
taining not  less  than  25  tubs  each ;  on  larger  lots 
marks  containing  not  less  than  50  tubs  each. 

39.  On  sales  of  factory,  or  process  butter,  de- 
livery must  be  of  one  mark,  unless  otherwise  speci- 
fied. 

40.  A  carload  shall  consist  of  300  tubs  of  one 
mark,  unless  otherwise  specified. 

41.  In  case  of  failure  to  deliver  a  carload,  set- 
tlement shall  be  made  on  the  basis  of  300  tubs. 

42.  An  application  to  the  superintendent  for  an 
inspection  of  goods  in  controversy,  if  made  within 
the  time  allowed  for  inspection,  shall  be  deemed  a 
compliance  with  these  rules  in  this  respect. 


ON  BUTTERMAKING  65 

PENALTIES 

43.  When  an  inspection  of  butter  sold  for  spot 
delivery  shows  the  goods  not  to  be  of  the  class  and 
grade  sold,  the  seller  shall  pay  a  penalty  equal  to 
5  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  the  contract,  and  the 
fee  for  inspection.  If  the  official  quotation  for  the 
day  exceeds  the  contract  price,  the  seller  shall  also 
pay  to  the  buyer  in  the  same  way  the  difference  be- 
tween the  contract  price  and  the  average  official 
quotation. 

44.  If  butter  purchased  for  future  delivery  be 
not  delivered  as  per  contract,  the  buyer  shall 
promptly  notify  the  superintendent  in  writing.  At 
the  next  regular  meeting  of  the  exchange,  an  an- 
nouncement of  the  same  shall  be  made  by  the 
superintendent,  who  shall  buy  in  the  goods  for  ac- 
count of  the  seller,  provided  it  can  be  done  under 
the  call  at  current  rates.  If,  however,  the  price 
demanded  seems  to  him  unreasonable,  he  shall  not 
make  the  purchase,  but  shall  refer  the  matter  to 
the  butter  committee,  who  shall  determine  the  dif- 
ference between  the  contract  price  and  the  actual 
market  value  on  the  date  on  which  delivery  should 
have  been  made,  and  this  amount,  together  with  a 
penalty  equal  to  5  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  the  con- 
tract, shall  be  paid  by  the  seller. 

45.  If  butter,  sold  for  future  delivery,  be  not  re- 
ceived when  properly  tendered,  the  seller  shall 
promptly  notify  the  superintendent  in  writing.  At 
the  next  regular  meeting  of  the  exchange,  an  an- 
nouncement of  the  same  shall  be  made  by  the 
superintendent,  who  shall  sell  out  the  goods,  under 
the  call,  for  account  of  the  buyer,  and  if  the  price 


66  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

obtained  be  less  than  the  contract  price,  the  dif- 
ference, together  with  a  penalty  equal  to  5  per  cent 
of  the  amount  of  the  contract,  shall  be  paid  by  the 
buyer. 

46.  Penalties  and  differences  shall  be  paid  to  the 
superintendent  of  the  exchange,  and  by  him  paid 
to  those  entitled  thereto. 

47.  Any  member  holding  a  contract  against  an- 
other, corresponding  in  respect  to  class,  grade  and 
quantity  of  goods,  and  date  of  delivery,  with  one 
held  by  the  other  against  him,  may  offset  it  against 
the  latter  by  giving  notice  to  the  other  party,  when 
both  contracts  shall  be  surrendered  to  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  exchange  and  canceled. 

48.  All  notices  shall  be  in  writing,  and  shall  be 
considered  as  properly  served  when  left  at  the  place 
of  business  of  the  party  for  whom  they  are  intended. 

CERTIFICATE  OF  SALE 

49.  Certificates  of  sale  must  be  accepted  on  con- 
tracts for  future  delivery. 

50.  The  party  transferring  a  certificate  of  sale, 
shall  immediately  notify  the  original  seller  of  the 
transfer,  and  to  whom  made.  He  shall  also  have 
it  recorded  on  the  books  of  the  exchange,  and  shall 
thereupon  be  relieved  of  all  responsibility  attaching 
to  the  same. 

51.  In  case  the  party  to  a  contract  for  future 
delivery,  for  the  fulfillment  of  which  margin  has 
been  deposited  with  the  superintendent,  shall  die, 
make  an  assignment,  be  absent  from  the  city,  or 
otherwise  be  disabled,  or  refuse  to  perform  any  act 
necessary  for  the  proper  adjustment  or  payment  of 


ON    BUTTERMAKING  ^"J 

such  margin,  the  matter  shall  be  referred  to  the 
finance  committee,  as  provided  in  section  33,  para- 
graph 6,  of  the  by-laws. 

CONTRACTS 

52.  The  following  shall  be  the  form  of  contract 
for  all  sales  of  butter  for  future  delivery. 

CONTRACT  FOR  FUTURE  DELIVERY 

No 

This  is  to  certify  that  the  following  sale  and  pur- 
chase has  been  made  by  the  respective  signers 
hereto,  under  and  subject  to  the  rules  of  the  New 
York  Mercantile  Exchange,  this 

day  of ,   190.... 

Seller • 

Address    

Purchaser    

Address    

Quantity 

Grade    

Class   

Price   

Delivery 

Seller. 

Purchaser. 

Original  margin  deposited  with  me  this  day  by 
each   party   hereto dollars. 

Superintendent. 

New  York, ,  190.  •  •  • 


68  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

Upon  the  reverse  side  of  each  contract  shall  be 
printed  the  rules  governing  such  transactions.  A 
proper  book  shall  be  kept  by  the  superintendent  of 
the  exchange,  entitled  *'  Butter  Contracts,"  in  which 
shall  be  recorded  all  contracts  as  per  foregoing  form, 
duplicates  of  which  shall  be  furnished  to  both  sellers 
and  purchasers,  who  shall  personally  sign  the  same 
at  the  time  of  depositing  original  margins.  All  con- 
tracts shall  be  signed,  and  original  margins  de- 
posited not  later  than  2  o'clock  on  the  day  follow- 
ing the  sale. 

53.'  When  further  margins  are  called  for,  same 
shall  be  paid  to,  and  receipted  for,  by  indorsement 
upon  the  contract  by  the  superintendent  of  the  ex- 
change. 

54.  All  transfers  of  contracts  for  future  delivery 
must  be  indorsed  on  the  original  contract,  by  the 
superintendent  of  the  exchange,  who  shall  promptly 
notify  the  other  party  in  interest  of  such  transfer. 

55.  The  following  form  of  transfer  shall  be  used : 
"  For  value  received,  the  within   described  con- 
tract is  assigned  and  transferred  to 

who  hereby  agrees  to  assume  the  same,  with  all  the 
conditions   and   obligations   thereof. 

Dated,  New  York, ,  190. . . . 

^ Seller. 

Buyer." 

INSPECTORS  AND  INSPECTIONS 

56.  The  butter  committee  shall  recommend  to 
the  president,  for  his  appointment,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  executive  committee,  such  inspect- 
ors of  butter  as  may  be  required. 


ON  BUTTERMAKING  69 

57.  Vacancies  occurring  in  the  office  of  inspect- 
ors shall  be  filled  in  the  manner  in  which  the  orig- 
inal appointment  was  made. 

58.  In  case  of  absence,  or  inability  of  the  in- 
spectors, temporary  inspectors  may  be  appointed 
by  the  butter  committee  of  the  exchange. 

59.  Inspectors,  before  entering  upon  their  duties, 
shall  take  and  subscribe  to  the  following  oath : 

I» ,  do  solemnly  swear  that 

I  will  execute  the  duties  of  an  "  Inspector  of  But- 
ter "  for  the  New  York  Mercantile  Exchange,  with 
strict  impartiality  and  according  to  the  best  of  my 
ability,  that  I  will,  in  making  my  inspections,  fol- 
low carefully  the  rules  adopted  and  the  instructions 
given  me  by  the  butter  committee.  That  I  will 
fearlessly  perform  my  duties,  make  each  inspection 
according  to  the  merits  of  the  butter,  and  render 
my  certificates  accordingly.  That  I  will  not  allow 
a  second  party  to  examine  and  comment  while  I  am 
making  an  inspection. 

That  I  will  promptly  report  in  writing  to  the 
butter  committee  the  name  of  any  firm,  company 
or  member  that  makes  any  suggestions,  or  requests 
relative  to  any  inspection  that  I  may  make,  as  well 
as  a  full  detailed  report  regarding  the  occurrence; 
further,  that  I  will  accept  no  gratuity  of  any  kind 
or  nature  whatsoever  other  than  the  salary  paid  to 
me  by  the  exchange. 


Sworn  and  subscribed  before  me  this, 
day  of ,  190 


Notary  Public. 


70  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

60.  All  applications  for  inspection  must  be  made 
to  the  superintendent  of  the  exchange  between  the 
hours  of  8  A.  M.  and  5  p.  m.,  who  will  direct  the 
same — For  Members  of  the  Exchange  Only — as 
soon  as  practicable,  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
received,  excepting  that  applications  for  the  inspec- 
tion of  butter  which  has  been  sold  under  the  call, 
and  is  in  controversy,  shall  be  given  precedence 
over  other  applications. 

61.  Inspectors  shall  brand  on  the  top  and  side 
each  package  inspected,  and,  when  requested,  also 
on  the  side  of  each  remaining  package  in  the  lot, 
or  lots,  covered  by  the  inspection. 

62.  Inspectors  shall,  immediately  after  complet- 
ing an  inspection,  make  a  certificate  of  the  same  in 
accordance  with  the  specification  for  grading,  con- 
tained in  these  rules,  upon  blanks  furnished  for  this 
purpose,  under  the  direction  of  the  butter  commit- 
tee; which  shall  be  countersigned  by  the  superin- 
tendent, and  promptly  delivered  to  the  party  order- 
ing the  inspection. 

6^.  A  certificate  of  inspection  shall  be  good  for 
two  days  from  date  of  same  (including  Sundays  and 
holidays),  provided  the  holder  of  the  goods  takes 
proper  care  of  the  same. 

64.  The  inspectors  shall  have  recorded  in  a  book 
provided  for  the  purpose,  a  detailed  account  of  all 
inspections  made  by  them,  stating  date  and  hour  of 
inspection,  name  and  address  of  parties  from  whom 
inspection  is  made,  place  where  inspection  is  made, 
stencil  number  or  other  marks  on  goods,  number 
of  tubs  in  lots  and  number  of  tubs  inspected.  If 
lots  contain  more  than  one  shipment,  the  number 
of  tubs  in  each  shipment  shall  be  noted. 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  7I 

65.     There  shall  be  drawn  as  samples  for  inspec- 
tion by  the  inspectors : 

5  tubs  from   lots   less   than  25   of  one   mark  and 
invoice ; 

8  tubs  from  lots  of  25  of  one  mark  and  invoice  ; 
15  tubs  from  lots  of  50  of  one  mark  and  invoice; 
20  tubs  from  lots  of  100  of  one  mark  and  invoice; 
35  tubs  from  lots  of  200  of  one  mark  and  invoice ; 
50  tubs  from  lots  of  300  of  one  mark  and  invoice ; 
60  tubs  from  lots  of  500  of  one  mark  and  invoice ; 
and  a  like  proportion  of  lots  ranging  between  these 
figures,  and  of  larger  lots 

66.  If  butter  runs  irregular  in  quality,  the  in- 
spector shall  increase  his  sample  to  such  an  extent 
as  he  may  deem  necessary  to  secure  a  fair  and  just 
inspection. 

67.  A  buyer  or  seller  may  have  a  larger  per- 
centage than  the  above  inspected,  upon  making  ap- 
plication previous  to  the  inspection,  and  payment 
of  10  cents  per  tub  additional  fees. 

68.  All  complaints  against  the  butter  inspectors 
shall  be  referred  to  the  butter  committee. 

69.  Charges  for  inspection  shall  be  as  follows: 
In  the  borough  of  Manhattan,  below  Fourteenth 
street  and  outside  of  that  district,  the 
charge  shall  be  $1.50. 

On  lots  not  exceeding  10  tubs,  i  invoice. 
Over  10  and  not  over  25  tubs,  I  invoice. 
Over  25  and  not  over  50  tubs,  i  invoice. 
Over  50  and  not  over  100  tubs,  i  invoice. 
Over  100  and  not  over  200  tubs,  i  invoice. 
Over  200  and  not  over  300  tubs,  i  invoice. 
Over  300  and  not  over  500  tubs,  I  invoice. . . 


mmimum 

.   $  .50 

.       75 

,     1. 00 

1.50 

1-75 

2.00 

2.50 

'J2  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

70.  Inspections  shall  be  paid  for  by  the  party  or- 
dering' the  same,  except  where  otherwise  provided. 

71.  The  butter  committee  shall  recommend  to 
the  president  for  appointment,  subject  to  the  ap- 
proval of  the  executive  committee,  a  butter  weigher, 
who  may  appoint  assistants  as  he  may  require  them. 

y2.  The  butter  weigher  shall  receive  his  instruc- 
tions from  the  butter  committee. 

y}^.  The  butter  weigher  and  assistants,  before 
entering  upon  their  duties  shall  be  sworn  to  per- 
form said  duties  faithfully,  correctly  and  in  con- 
formity with  the  customs  of  the  butter  trade,  as 
defined  by  the  butter  committee. 

74.  The  butter  weigher  shall  make  certificates 
in  duplicate  of  all  lots  of  butter  weighed  by  him, 
or  his  assistants,  and  promptly  deliver  to  the  party 
ordering  the  weighing. 

75.  Applications  for  weighing  butter  shall  be 
made  to  the  superintendent,  or  butter  weigher. 

^6.     Charges  for  weighing  shall  be  as  follows: 

On  lots  not  over  25  tubs 3     c.  per  tub 

Over  25  and  not  over  50  tubs 2^c.  per  tub 

Over  50  and  not  over  100  tubs 2     c.  per  tub 

Testing  7  tubs  or  less 75     c. 

Over  7  tubs   10     c.  per  tub 

yy.  All  complaints  against  the  butter  weigher,  or 
assistants,  shall  be  made  to  the  butter  committee. 

y^.  All  former  rules  conflicting  with  the  fore- 
going are  hereby  repealed. 

Attention  is  Directed  to  the  Following  Executive 
Committee  Rules,  and  Section  33,   Paragraph 
6,  of  the  By-laws. 
Rule  2.     On  all  sales,  or  purchases  of  any  mer- 


ON   BUTTERMAKING  73 

chandise  to  arrive,  or  for  future  delivery,  each  party 
to  the  contract  shall  deposit  an  original  margin 
with  the  superintendent  of  the  exchange  of  lo  per 
cent  on  the  contract  price  at  the  time  of  purchase, 
•or  sale,  and  a  further  margin  from  time  to  time  to 
the  extent  of  any  variation  in  the  market  value  from 
the  contract  price;  said  margin  to  be  deposited  in 
such  bank  or  trust  company  as  may  have  been 
designated  by  the  finance  committee  of  the  New 
York  Mercantile  Exchange.  When  margins  are 
called  before  12  m.,  they  must  be  deposited  before 
3  p.  M.  of  the  same  day.  If  called  after  12  m.,  they 
must  be  deposited  before  12  m.  of  the  following 
day;  in  case  of  failure  to  deposit  as  above,  the 
buyer  or  seller  shall  have  the  right  to  cover  his 
contract  at  discretion,  for  account  of  the  party  fail- 
ing to  respond  to  the  call  for  margin. 

Rule  7.  All  merchandise  purchased  by  sample 
shall  be  considered  sold,  unless  the  purchaser  notify 
the  seller  within  twenty-four  hours  after  receipt  of 
the  same  that  it  is  rejected  as  not  being  up  to 
sample.  If  a  settlement  cannot  be  agreed  on,  the 
case  shall  be  referred  to  the  trade  committee  having 
charge  of  the  class  of  goods  in  question,  who  shall 
decide  the  matter,  and  in  the  event  of  a  decision 
against  either  buyer  or  seller,  the  same  penalties 
shall  accrue  as  the  Rules  for  sales  under  the  Cal 
provide  for  the  kind  of  goods  dealt  in.  The  party, 
against  whom  the  decision  is  given,  shall  pay  to 
each  committeeman  serving  $2  for  each  case. 


Section  33,   Paragraph  6,   of  the  By-laws 
When  the  parties  to  a  contract,  on  which  margin 
has  been  deposited  through  the  instrumentality  of 


74  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS 

the  superintendent,  as  above  set  forth,  cannot  agree 
as  to  the  distribution  and  payment  of  such  margin, 
or  in  case  one  or  both  of  the  contracting  parties  die 
or  make  an  assignment,  or  otherwise  become  in- 
capacitated, or  refuse  to  perform  promptly  any  act 
necessary  for  the  adjustment  and  payment  of  such 
margin,  the  finance  committee  is  hereby  authorized 
and  directed  to  ascertain  the  person  or  persons  to 
whom  such  margin  should  be  paid,  and  instruct  the 
superintendent  to  indorse  the  deposit  certificate  for 
payment,  or  exchange  it  for  other  checks,  to  cor- 
respond in  amount  with  the  committee's  decision, 
drawn  to  the  order  of  the  person  or  persons  en- 
titled thereto,  and  deliver  the  same  to  said  person 
or  persons  without  unnecessary  delay;  and  in  case, 
for  any  cause  whatever,  the  said  deposit  certificate 
is  not  immediately  forthcoming,  so  that  such  in- 
dorsement and  distribution  may  be  made,  the 
finance  committee  shall  instruct  the  superintendent 
to  procure  from  the  said  bank  or  trust  company 
that  issued  it,  a  duplicate  thereof,  as  provided  for 
in  the  original,  and  indorse  it  as  he  would  have 
indorsed  the  original  if  it  had  come  into  His  pos- 
session. 

What  method  of  sewage  disposal  is  advisable  for 
creameries? 

This  depends  on  the  location  of  the  creamery  and 
the  character  of  the  surrounding  soil.  One  or  more 
of  the  following  methods  can  usually  be  success- 
fully installed: 

I.  Removal  by  cartage.  2.  Direct  disposal  into 
lakes  and  rivers  if  laws  permit.  3.  Cesspools. 
4.     Septic  tanks  and  filter  beds. 


ON    BUTTERMAKING  •    75 

Excessive  skim  milk  and  such  material  useful  for 
feeding  purposes  should  not  be  wasted  in  sewage, 
but  should  be  carted  away  and  fed  to  hogs. 

When  the  laws  of  the  state  permit  the  direct 
disposal  of  creamery  sewage  into  lakes  and  large 
rivers,  it  makes  a  most  satisfactory  system.  In  tlie 
case  of  small  rivers  and  other  small  bodies  of 
water,  however,  most  states  have  laws  preventing 
their  use  for  such  purpose.  Then  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  use  one  of  the  other  systems.  If  the  soil 
surrounding  the  creamery  is  of  a  sandy  nature,  it 
will  have  good  filtering  qualities  so  that  a  cess- 
pool placed  at  a  safe  distance  from  the  well  should 
answer  in  most  cases. 

When  the  surrounding  soil  is  of  clay  and  with 
little  elevation,  it  becomes  necessary  to  construct 
a  filter  bed  of  sand  and  stone  and  to  pass  the  sew- 
age first  through  a  septic  tank. 


% 


^ 


'^ 


INDEX 


Page 

Acid  tests 27,  28 

Bacteria    45 

Butter 

brands    of 48,  49 

churning    34,  35 

color  of 32,  33 

composition  of 44 

flavors  in 48 

gritty 43 

judging 47 

moisture  content 38 

mottled    43,  44 

packing    45,  46 

rules 57 

salt   content 40,  41 

salting   39,  40,  42,  43- 

scoring 47 

testing   51,  52 

washing 36,  37 

working 44 

Buttermilk 38 

Churning 

frothy   cream 35,  36 

influences 29,  36 

methods 26,  34 

object  of 29 

temperature 30 

Chums 

care  of 31,32,  34 

makes  of 31 

Chum-yield 8 

Cream 

ripening    21,27,  33 

sampling 7 

screw    13,  14 

separation 9,  17 

Creamery 

losses 51 

•  overrun 8 

Cream  raising  coefficient. ..  .8,  9 


Pa«e 

Fat 

composition   2 

globules 1,  2 

melting  points 3 

non- volatile    3 

volatile    3 

Fermentation  test 4 

Ferments    4 

Milk 

color 3,  4 

composition 1,  2 

ferments 4 

heating   10 

sampling 7 

sugar 3 

tests 6 

Moisture  tests 52,  54 

Oleomargarine 

composition   49 

laws   49,  SO 

Overrun    8 

Pasteurization 

advantages 19 

disadvantages    19 

effects   4 

methods 18,  19,  20 

Salt 

composition  39 

effects  of 40,  41 

tests  for 41,  42 

Separators 

care  of 16,  18 

speed  of IS 

varieties    ,  10 

Separator  slime 13 

Spores 5 

Starters   21,  2S 

Sterilization   19 

Water  purification 38 

Whey  butter SO,  51 


